Civil Procedure

Ky vendim është kontrolli kushtetues incidental që kam inicuar në Gjykatën e Apelit Durrës me cilësinë e gjyqtarit a quo mbi nenin 154/a të Kodit të Procedurës Civile.
Përmes tij kam kërkuar në Gjykatën Kushtetuese që të shfuqizohet paragrafi i tretë i nenit 154/a të Kodit të Procedurës Civile, në pjesën që parashikon "‘‘i a kthen paditësit në kohën e paraqitjes së saj ose’’, pasi vjen në kundërshtim me parimin e proprocionalitetit, aksesit në gjykatë, përfundimin e gjykimit brenda një afati të arsyeshëm dhe të sigurisë juridike.

Il libro, giovandosi degli insegnamenti che la dottrina processualcivilistica ha impartito nel corso degli anni sul tema del precedente giudiziale, aspira a ricondurli a un discorso più organico e unitario. A tal fine, il contributo, senza trascurare l’apporto della giurisprudenza, predilige un approccio che attinge – cum grano salis – anche ad altre discipline, come la teoria generale o il diritto comparato e ad esperienze straniere. Dall’indagine, che prende le mosse dalle ricadute delle riforme processuali sul modo in cui «si crea» e «si usa» il c.d. formante giurisprudenziale, sviluppandone anche in chiave critica le implicazioni più rilevanti, scaturisce l’immagine di un precedente che, lungi dal risolvere l’ambiguità di fondo, di cui soffre da tempo la Corte suprema, la esaspera, fino a sospingerne il ruolo – nel pendolarismo fra «giudice» e «maestro» – verso un inquietante tertium non datur.

Área do Direito: Civil; Processual Resumo: O ensaio aborda particularidades do Procedimento Extrajudicial Pré-executivo de Portugal (PEPEX), apresentando reflexões e provocações sobre sua possível implantação no Brasil. Palavras-chave: Procedimento Extrajudicial Pré-executivo – Portugal – PEPEX – Agente de execução – Brasil Abstract: The essay discusses particularities of the extrajudicial pre-executive procedure (EPEP) from Portugal, presenting reflections and provocations about its possible implantation in Brazil.

Este trabajo busca introducir a las lectoras en el conocimiento de los principales institutos procesales necesarios para tramitar, resolver y eventualmente implementar las decisiones judiciales tomadas en el contexto de procesos colectivos y acciones de clase. Asimismo, presenta algunos de los problemas, interrogantes e implicancias de orden político, social y económico que genera el corrimiento del ámbito de debate de cuestiones colectivas hacia el seno del poder judicial.

Como principal clave de lectura les proponemos partir de una premisa fundamental: la enorme magnitud y el tipo de conflictos que se están discutiendo, papel va, papel viene, dentro del poder judicial. Sobre todo, ante los superiores tribunales de justicia de nuestros países.

Solo en Argentina, desde donde escribo, en los últimos 10 años el poder judicial federal y las jurisdicciones locales han dictado resoluciones y sentencias de diverso tipo (cautelares y de mérito) en el marco de procesos donde se debate, por ejemplo, el modo de facturar en el mercado de teléfonía móvil, la cartelización de empresas de distintos rubros, el acceso voluntario a la interrupción del embarazo y la impugnación de la ley que lo autoriza, las condiciones de detención de personas privadas de su libertad en establecimientos penitenciarios y diversos derechos fundamentales que les asisten (educación, requisas dignas, beneficios de la seguridad social, salario por el trabajo realizado, prisiones domiciliarias para embarazadas y madres con niñas pequeñas), las condiciones de internación en establecimientos neuropsiquiátricos, la defensa de sitios de memoria del genocidio argentino, situaciones de contaminación por explotación minera en zonas prohibidas, recuperación de espacios culturales y del patrimonio histórico, el trato digno que deben aplicar las entidades bancarias a sus clientes, la protección de patrimonio paleontológico, los límites de tasa de interés que cobran las tarjetas de crédito, la validez constitucional del blanqueo de capitales por parte de familiares de funcionarias y funcionarios públicos, la comisión que pagan inquilinos e inquilinas para acceder a una vivienda familiar, diversas prácticas ilícitas de mutuales y obras sociales (aumentos indebidos, bajas indebidas, cobros en exceso), la legalidad y razonabilidad de los cuadros tarifarios de servicios públicos esenciales (gas, luz, agua, telefonía), el pago de impuesto a las ganancias integrantes del poder judicial, situaciones de riesgo y daño ambiental por actividades de diversa índole (industrias, desmontes, represas, aplicación de agrotóxicos, obras de infraestructura vial), cargos y comisiones cobradas indebidamente por entidades bancarias, financieras y otras prestamistas, cláusulas contractuales abusivas de todo tipo y color, impuestos tasas y contribuciones que se consideran inconstitucionales, daños por productos elaborados (automotores, protectores solares), derechos de usuarios de servicios de turismo, restricciones de derechos en el contexto de la pandemia de Covid-19, condiciones edilicias de ciertos tribunales, la validez del empréstito contraído por Argentina con el FMI en 2018, el acceso a medicamentos para ciertas enfermedades, la falta de vacantes en las escuelas públicas, y el régimen de derechos y obligaciones de personas migrantes, entre muchas otras cuestiones.

Como podrán advertir, hablamos de conflictos que involucran a cientos de miles, millones y hasta decenas de millones de personas afectadas de manera homogénea en sus derechos, o en riesgo de serlo.

Conflictos que, en nuestra región, se desarrollan en el contexto de marcos convencionales y constitucionales que exigen proteger de manera preferente ciertos bienes y derechos, por un lado, y ciertos grupos de personas que han sido tradicionalmente relegadas o débilmente protegidas, por el otro.

Marcos constitucionales que, además, en diversos supuestos reconocen expresamente el derecho de acceso colectivo a la justicia (como Argentina, Brasil y Colombia), y tribunales que lo han hecho operativo a pesar de su falta de regulación adecuada (adecuación que, por la entidad de los conflictos, debería ser estricta).

Frente a este tipo de conflictos y de marcos convencionales y constitucionales, claramente diferentes a los que se tuvieron en cuenta para diagramar nuestras herramientas procesales tradicionales, resulta imprescindible revisar y repensar diversas técnicas y nociones conceptuales clásicas para adaptarlas a clave colectiva.

Civil procedure and delay were born together. This is, of course, due to the fact that no lawsuit can be decided fairly without at least some minimum period of time in between first presenting the case to a court and obtaining a final judgement. Manifestly this type of delay is not problematic. Delay becomes a problem, however, if it can be classified as ‘undue delay’, i.e., when it is felt that too much time has elapsed between the filing of an action and its ultimate decision by the court. Although it is difficult to establish what amount of time can be classified as ‘too much time’, and also because opinions as regards this issue may differ from country to country and from period to period, it is no secret that undue delay has been part of modern procedure from almost its conception. The present volume studies delay in civil procedure, both from a modern and from an historical perspective.

In April 2005, the blind activist Chen Guangcheng led a group of families to a courthouse in rural China. After suffering unlawful detentions and forced sterilisations under the government’s one-child policy campaign, they planned to sue the township mayor. A judge initially refused to accept the case. But Chen and the villagers argued there was no legal basis to reject it and insisted it be accepted. The judge relented and the lawsuit proceeded.

Chen recounts this story in his new autobiography, The Barefoot Lawyer. He is the most famous member of a group of mostly self-taught individuals providing low-cost or free legal services, despite lacking any licence to do so. The book’s release coincides with a heated debate about the appropriate role for barefoot lawyers in China’s developing legal system, which was sparked by recent legislative amendments that will restrict their work.

During the past 20 years, Chinese law made it very easy to use barefoot lawyers and their role in the legal services market grew. A litigant could choose any other citizen to represent him so long as the court approved; such approval was routinely granted.

Proponents of barefoot lawyers note that they provide at least some form of legal representation to the many citizens who are unable to hire lawyers or obtain other help. For, while the number of Chinese lawyers has grown significantly, they are highly concentrated in urban areas. And even when rural residents can find lawyers, their fees may be prohibitively expensive.

Barefoot lawyers also play a significant role in administrative litigation – that is, when a citizen sues the government. In various localities, barefoot lawyers represent plaintiffs in up to a third of all such cases. These claims often contest government land seizures, fines and taxes, environmental pollution, or local corruption.

Lawyers are reluctant to take these “high risk, low reward” cases. Plaintiffs are often seeking to change the government’s behaviour, not recover monetary damages. Lawyers also fear retaliation by the local government, such as revocation of their law licence. Legal aid is generally unavailable in sensitive cases because the local government controls that system. A barefoot lawyer is sometimes the only option.

But barefoot lawyers also have their critics. Some party officials warn that their rights protection activities threaten social stability. Judges have argued they inadequately
represent parties due to their lack of legal expertise and employ disruptive tactics in court. Even worse, barefoot lawyers may simply cheat parties out of their money.

Licensed lawyers, echoing these arguments, have also lobbied for limiting this perceived source of competition.

In this context, China amended the law governing civil cases, effective as of 2013, to restrict citizens’ ability to employ barefoot lawyers. An identical amendment for administrative cases takes effect in May. No longer can any citizen represent a party simply by obtaining court approval. Instead, barefoot lawyers may only appear in court in two instances.

First, a party’s close relative may serve as his representative. But few people have an immediate family member with legal expertise. The second method requires the party to obtain a letter recommending the barefoot lawyer from either the party’s employer, the residents’ or villagers’ committee where the party lives, or a “social organisation”.
For civil cases, the recommendation requirement has not weeded out the “bad” barefoot lawyers, as the committees lack guidance on when to issue the recommendations. However, when the new rule is applied to administrative cases, those barefoot lawyers seeking to bring sensitive cases will be screened out. Employers are unlikely to risk their relationship with the government by issuing recommendation letters. And many rural residents have no employer.

The residents’ and villagers’ committees essentially function as branch offices of the local government. Similarly, China’s larger “social organisations”, such as the trade union, are staffed by civil servants and largely indistinguishable from government organs. These entities will not assist citizens to sue the government over sensitive matters.
Thus, the new rules on administrative cases will effectively prevent all barefoot lawyers from appearing in such actions.

If they are unable to find representation, citizens may forego the courts altogether and resort to more drastic measures. Thus, China’s desire to maintain social stability requires bridging the representation gap. For its part, the government could grant lawyers more independence, create financial incentives to litigate administrative matters, encourage pro bono work, and ensure legal aid is available in sensitive cases, particularly in rural areas. But, ultimately, it falls to Chinese lawyers to fill the void.

Aaron Halegua is a research scholar at New York University School of Law’s US-Asia Law Institute

Protéger la possession des biens meubles et immeubles d’une personne étrangère à Rome, à l’Époque classique romaine constitue, de notre perspective, une noble conception juridique qu’une cité puisse en exprimer dans sa politique vis-à-vis des étrangers.

La propriété romaine supposait des nombreux débats. C’était une institution très complexe du point de vue politique.

La possession supposait des nombreuses évaluations factuelles. C’était une institution très complexe du point de vue juridique.

Rome avait agi au sens de la protection de la possession, donc, de la paix sociale, et, par cela, elle avait agi le vois humaniste de la factualité non-politique (d’oportunité, au sens du Gaius).

La possession est une institution humaniste et universaliste par définition. En protégeant la possession, la bonne foi, la liberté des affaires et l’équité universelle, Rome avait protégé quelques unes des valeurs juridiques qui représentent le squelette de l’idéologie des droits fondamentaux de l’Homme contemporain.

L’actio Publiciana, par l’intermède des deux fictions juridiques qu’elle implique (l’usucapion instantanée et celle de la citoyenneté Romaine pour des circonstances juridictionnelles d’opportunité)  représente l’épitomé de cet humanisme juridique avant la lettre. Celui-ci est un humanisme juridique qui anticipe l’humanisme européen de l’époque moderne, un «humanisme » connu par la Dacia Felix, Tres Daciae, et respectivement, Dacia Romana pendant l’époque de son genèse, cela classique.

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— Corrosion of reinforcement has been established as the predominant factor causing widespread premature deterioration of concrete construction worldwide, especially of the structures located in the coastal marine environment. The most important causes of corrosion initiation of reinforcing steel are the ingress of chloride ions and carbon dioxide to the steel surface. After initiation of the corrosion process, the corrosion products (iron oxides and hydroxides) are usually deposited in the restricted space in the concrete around the steel. Their formation within this restricted space sets up expansive stresses, which crack and spall the concrete cover. Corrosion loss consumes considerable portion of the budget of the country by way of either restoration measures or reconstruction. The content of chlorides in the salt induces corrosion in the rebar of RCC.As the content of chloride increases and also it accelerates the rate of corrosion in the rebar.

The experience for the use of technology has generated new social involvements, especially through the "network society" and "cyberculture". This study aims to analyze the influence of these virtual experiences for civil procedure, especially by the use of the virtual means for the formation of the probative set. It is fundamental to realize that in this association probatory there may be an antagonism that guides the truthful and the untrue, especially in the face of the plurality of meanings that the word " virtual reality" involves through "cyberculture and that is also contextualized in the intercommunication and virtualization of information .In this context, the work is organized in sections that are inclined to elucidate: reality and virtuality; evidence and truth; and the use of virtual evidence in the context of civil proceedings.For that, we applied the comparative and historical methods, using bibliographic and exploratory revision techniques to understand the use and validity of the virtual evidence as a probative source.

KEYWORDS: REALITY, VIRTUALITY, EVIDENCE, PROCEDURE CIVIL.

Resumo
A convivência com o uso da tecnologia tem gerado novas experiências sociais, especialmente por meio da “sociedade em rede” e da “cibercultura”. Assim, o presente trabalho visa analisar as influencias dessas experiências virtuais para o processo civil, especialmente pelo uso dos meios virtuais para formação do conjunto probatório. É fundamental que se perceba que nesta associação probatória pode haver um antagonismo que norteia o verídico e o inverídico, principalmente diante da pluralidade de significados que envolve a palavra “realidade virtual” por meio da “cibercultura e que também está contextualizada na intercomunicação e na virtualização da informação. Nesse sentido, o trabalho está organizado em seções que propendem explorar: realidade e virtualidade; prova e verdade; e a utilização da prova virtual no contexto do processo civil. Para tanto, se aplicou os métodos comparativo e histórico, com a utilização de técnicas de revisão bibliográfica e exploratória para compreender uso e a validade das provas virtuais como fonte probatória.

PALAVRAS-CHAVE: REALIDADE, VIRTUALIDADE, PROVA, NOVO SISTEMA PROCESSUAL CIVIL.

The nature of the arbitration agreement in most legal systems (at least legal systems other than common law) is somewhat unclear. Presently, it is not possible to make any decisive statements as to which theory is the only correct one. On the other hand, it is necessary to examine each arbitration agreement invoked by the parties at the beginning of the proceedings and choose one of the current theories mentioned above. The classification of the arbitration agreement might, under certain circumstances, be the decisive element in determining the rules, i.e. procedural or substantive rules, applicable to the arbitration agreement. In civil law tradtion arbitration agreements may be defined as procedural agreements in broader sense, which does not have effects in proceedings only, but which are of substantial significance for qualitative evaluation of the substantive contractual relation between parties. Nevertheless, despite a mixed nature of arbitration agreements (as well as all jurisdictional agreements), jurisdiction is a procedural and not substantive category in the civil law tradition and jurisdiction remains the procedural condition (procedural requirement). Taking decision on jurisdiction in arbitration by partial award is in contradiction to the concept of jurisdiction as a procedural category, rather an interim award may be used for such decisions. Jurisdictional decisions taken in course of arbitration are, however, not substantive decisions and do not effect any Res Judicata. Some of civil law jurisdictions, completely in compliance with the concept of jurisdiction as procedural category, therefore deny to set-aside jurisdictional awards rendered prior to rendering award(s) on the merits of the dispute. Having any civil law dimension in arbitration, it may cause significant problems to the parties, if the arbitral tribunal decides on jurisdiction by a separate jurisdictional award.

Through its case law, the CJEU has developed and established various legal institutions and principles guaranteeing the effectiveness of EU law including consumer protection law. Although much time has passed since the CJEU required from Member States' courts to give the "Community (now: Union) law its full effect within the framework of the judicial systems of the Member States", more recent cases demonstrate the serious struggles of the courts when it comes to the enforcement of the EU consumer protection law. The effectiveness of the judicial protection of consumer protection rights is sometimes undermined by the most basic questions, such as who qualifies a person as a "consumer" in a national civil law dispute, the court or the claimant? Moreover, recent studies of the European Commission demonstrate that the national courts are barely aware of their duty in an ex officio application of the EU consumer protection law. With the exception of the courts' duty to examine the unfairness of contract terms in business-to-consumer (B2C) relations of their own motion, they seem to be reluctant to the idea of an ex officio application of consumer protection law. This paper examines the position of courts in this new environment of allegedly more effective enforcement mechanisms and questions to what extent the Member States' courts are obliged to apply the EU consumer protection law ex officio.

O texto aborda a produção antecipada de prova no Código de Processo Civil de 2015, sob o viés do direito autônomo à prova, examinando, ainda, as suas possíveis funções, a sua aplicabilidade aos diferentes meios de prova e outros aspectos igualmente relevantes.
The text addresses the anticipated production of evidence in the brazilian Civil Procedure Law of 2015, under the bias of autonomous right to evidence, examining, also, its possible functions, its applicability to differents means of proof and other equally relevant aspects.

Ovrha na temelju vjerodostojne isprave pravni je institut koji se u proteklih nekoliko desetljeća transformirao od sasvim marginalnoga opcionalnog instrumenta ovršnog prava do praktičnog standarda u postupcima naplate nespornih novčanih tražbina koji brojčano predvodi u statistikama hrvatskih građanskih postupaka. Usporedno je taj oblik certifikacije nespornog duga većim dijelom izmješten iz sudova te predan u nadležnost javnih bilježnika. Međutim, preobrazba toga autohtonog instrumenta postjugoslavenskoga procesnog prava nastavlja se. U ovom radu analiziraju se interni i eksterni pritisci zbog kojih bi se javnobilježnička ovrha mogla, nakon što je doživjela svoj zenit, ponovno preobraziti i bitno ograničiti, a možda i napustiti kao instrument naplate duga u potrošačkim sporovima. Naime, recentna praksa Suda EU-a ne samo što načelno dovodi u pitanje nadležnost javnih bilježnika i njihovo pravo da donose rješenja koja bi bila ovršiva u širemu europskom prostoru, nego u nizu novih odl...

The article deals with the categories of mediability and arbitrability of a legal dispute, identifies their individual general and special characteristics. Taking into account the current legal regulation and doctrinal approaches, the author analyzes the correlation of the concepts of mediability, arbitrability and jurisdiction. It offers its own conclusions regarding the assessment of the mediability and arbitrability of a legal dispute, based on the understanding of the legal relationship structure existing in the theory of law.

Legal privilege and professional secrecy of attorneys relate to the right to a fair trial (Article 6 European Court of Human Rights (ECHR)) as well as to the right to respect for private and family life (Article 8 ECHR). The reason for protecting the lawyer via fundamental rights is the protection
of fundamental rights of the lawyer’s clients. All legal orders apply legal privileges and professional secrecy; however, the contents of such are not identical. Traditionally there is an important difference between common and civil law. The professional secrecy of an attorney in civil law jurisdictions is his right and at the same time his obligation based on his membership of the Bar (that is his legal profession). In common law legal privilege comprises the contents of documents issued by an attorney to the client. Professional secrecy of attorneys in civil law jurisdictions applies solely to independent lawyers; in-house lawyers are usually not allowed to benefit from rules on professional secrecy (exceptions in the Netherlands and Belgium). On the other hand, common law jurisdictions apply legal professional privilege, recognized also to in-house lawyers. Slovenian law follows the traditional civil law concept of professional secrecy and set a limited privilege to in-house
lawyers. The article then discusses Slovenian law of civil procedure and compares the position of professional secrecy in lawsuits before State’s courts and in arbitration.

Since the 1970s, the interest in alternatives to formal court litigation has become an integral part of the worldwide access to justice movement. These alternatives have taken the form of small claims courts or tribunals, arbitration, conciliation and mediation, neighbor- hood justice centers, mini-trials, and similar mechanisms, often described under the umbrella of alternative dispute resolution.

This article reviews the major developments of the general power of English courts to reconsider their orders under r.3.1(7) of the Civil Procedure Rules 1998 (CPR). It shows that the Court of Appeal has been inconsistent in its approach to that rule, and that any attempt to provide general criteria for exercising that power fails to take into account the diversity of circumstances or the types of orders that may invoke the rule. The author proposes departing from the absolute prohibition on invoking CPR r.3.1(7) to review orders on the merits and, instead, affording trial judges the discretion to reconsider on the merits procedural orders that were made to facilitate the trial.

"A obra vem a público em momento singular, no qual a arbitragem, doméstica e internacional, assume importância extraordinária no Brasil. O livro agora apresentado contribuirá para disseminar o estudo e também para consolidar o futuro da arbitragem em território brasileiro. Assim o fazendo, estará ajudando a consolidar o direito dos brasileiros à mais ampla liberdade" (Min. Luis Felipe Salomão, Prefácio).

Im ordentlichen Verfahren haben die Parteien in jedem Fall zwei Möglichkeiten, unbeschränkt neue Tatsachen und Beweismittel ins Verfahren einzubringen. Können sich die Parteien aufgrund der gerichtlichen Verfahrensgestaltung nach Art. 229 Abs. 2 ZPO «zu Beginn der Hauptverhandlung» zum zweiten Mal unbeschränkt äussern, haben sie dies nach der präzisierten Rechtsprechung von BGE 144 III 67 «vor den ersten Parteivorträgen» zu tun. In Umsetzung von BGE 144 III 67 nennen die Parteien nach der förmlichen Eröffnung der Hauptverhandlung, aber vor den ersten Parteivorträgen, neue Tatsachen und Be-weismittel vorab in einem zusätzlichen, in der ZPO nicht ausdrücklich vorgesehenen Tatsachenvortrag. Der separate Tatsachenvortrag ist aufgrund der Mündlichkeit des Vortrages an der Hauptverhandlung geboten, verbessert die Waffengleichheit zwischen den Parteien und verein-facht die Hauptverhandlung. Das Gericht hat den Partei-en ausdrücklich die Gelegenheit zu bieten, neue Tatsachen und Beweismittel im Tatsachenvortrag vorzubringen.

Área do Direito: Civil; Processual Resumo: O autor analisa neste texto, a partir de uma decisão do STF, a necessidade de que se rediscutam as dimensões do conceito de interesse de terceiro para efeito de ser assistente simples. Admitem-se sua intervenção na criação de precedente judicial. Palavras-chave: Interesse jurídico-Terceiro-Assistente simples-Precedente-Amicus curiae Resumen: Resumen: El autor analiza en este texto, a partir de una decisión del STF, la necesidad de que se vuelvan a discutir las dimensiones del concepto de interés de tercero para efecto de ser asistente simple. Se admite su intervención en la creación de precedente judicial. Palabras claves: Interés jurídico-Tercero-Asistente simple-Precedente-Amicus curiae Sumário: No final de fevereiro de 2008, o STF admitiu a intervenção de um sindicato na qualidade de assistente simples (Sindicato da Indústria do Fumo do Estado de São Paulo-Sindifumo), em processo que envolve uma indústria de cigarros, em que se discute a constitucionalidade do Dec.-lei 1.593/77 (RE 550.769-QO/RJ, rel. Min. Joaquim Barbosa, 28.02.2008, publicada no Informativo do STF 496). É certo que o sindicato não mantém com o assistido uma relação jurídica conexa com a que se discute. Desta forma, inviável a assistência simples, de acordo com o entendimento tradicional sobre o tema. 1 Sucede que o STF entendeu que o interesse jurídico que autoriza a assistência simples, no caso mencionado, configurou-se pela constatação de que o julgamento do STF poderia definir a orientação da jurisprudência em torno do tema (constitucionalidade de meios de coerção indireta para o pagamento do tributo, como a interdição de estabelecimento), que serviria para a solução de um número indefinido de casos. A relação jurídica conexa à relação discutida, aqui, é uma relação jurídica coletiva, pois envolve a proteção de direitos individuais homogêneos, cuja titularidade pertence à coletividade das vítimas. 2

Silicosis is an incurable lung disease caused by the inhalation of silica dust. Gold is usually found alongside silica, so goldminers are especially at risk of silicosis. Studies show that up to a quarter of career mineworkers in South Africa have contracted it. As one expert witness in the litigation put it, a 'river of disease' was flowing through the mines. The river metaphor also captures the meandering course of the silicosis litigation, which spanned more than a decade, its course unpredictable, joined by new tributaries and splitting into new streams of litigation along the way. It included test cases, arbitration, massed claims and eventually, a class action. The silicosis class action in South Africa not only provided the first real test for the new court-made rules governing class actions, but is one of the largest and most complex multi-class, multi-defendant, dispersed incident class actions the world has seen. The class action succeeded, culminating in a R5 billion settlement. It also provides a strong basis to consider how best class action law should develop in South Africa. This article engages with the test for certification, representation in class actions, settlements and legal fees and costs. It argues that the constitutional commitment to access to justice undergirds class actions and must inform the development of these rules. The profit incentive presented by class actions presents risks of abuse that must be addressed. The Constitution, and not the market, should determine which poor litigants get legal representation to bring class actions, and how class actions work.

As Brazil turns into a major player in international trade, it is inevitable that the number of foreign arbitral awards rendered against parties with assets located in that country will grow exponentially. Accordingly, it is important that successful parties in arbitration proceedings who may need to enforce awards in Brazil be aware of the local procedures for recognition and enforcement. This book is the first one to provide practical guidance on the main steps and formal requirements for recognition of foreign arbitral awards before Brazil's Superior Court of Justice. It also includes a systematic compilation of all decisions issued by the Court on the recognition of foreign arbitral awards as of April 2015, as well as a bird's eye view of enforcement proceedings of said awards before Brazilian Federal Courts at the trial level.