The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 journal@dresshistorians.org www.dresshistorians.org/journal Copyright © 2020 The Association of Dress Historians ISSN 2515 0995 Online Computer Library Centre (OCLC) accession #988749854 The Journal of Dress History is the academic publication of The Association of Dress Historians (ADH) through which scholars can articulate original research in a constructive, interdisciplinary, and peer reviewed environment. The ADH supports and promotes the study and professional practice of the history of dress, textiles, and accessories of all cultures and regions of the world, from before classical antiquity to the present day. The ADH is Registered Charity #1014876 of The Charity Commission for England and Wales. The Journal of Dress History is published quarterly. It is circulated solely for educational purposes and is non commercial: journal issues are not for sale or profit. 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The logo was designed in 2017 by Janet Mayo, longstanding ADH member. The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Dressed for Action: Flying Clothing in British Propaganda Material Depicting Royal Air Force Aviators, 1939 1945 Liam Barnsdale Abstract Throughout the Second World War, a wide variety of methods were used to promote the actions and characters of the aviators in the Royal Air Force in Britain. In particular, flying clothing was repeatedly included in visual representations of these aviators to encourage their recognition and appreciation by the British public. This article examines visual representations of Royal Air Force aviators and their flying clothing in material including posters and films produced for domestic consumption in Britain during the Second World War (1939 1945). It is argued that the symbolic use of flying clothing in visual material produced and circulated during this period can be divided into three categories of use as propaganda: as a symbol to aid identification of aviators; as a means to invite interest and fascination with the Royal Air Force; and as a visual representation to characterise and contextualise depictions of aviators and their surroundings. This usage served to promote Royal Air Force aviators in a manner that encouraged recruitment as well as enhanced popular support war effort. for the Royal Air Force and its contribution to 5 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Introduction Clothing played a pivotal role in visual representations of Royal Air Force aviators that circulated in Britain during the Second World War (1939 1945) and strongly influenced public opinion of the service. For example, depictions of Royal Air Force fighter pilots often highlighted the stylish cut of the Royal Air Force Service Dress1 of Fighter Command, an such that they came to be known as the 2 hero adoration bemoaned by many, but served to encourage the British worship. Similarly, visual representations of Royal Air Force aviators featured both bomber crews and fighter pilots shown wearing thick, bulky, and often awkward flying clothing and equipment, while working in harsh working environments, conveying a resulting hardiness and willingness to serve. Given that these message of the images were staged, the clothing worn by the featured aviators was not merely the result of happenstance or a reflection of circumstantial reality, but arguably a conscious creative decision. Although the Royal Air Force uniform was worn when airmen appeared in public, the reasons behind the inclusion of flying clothing, defined for this article as the equipment worn by aviators over their uniforms while flying, in visual representations of airmen are less clear, as aviators only wore these garments and equipment during military operations and while out of the public eye. For this reason, the pervasive use of flying clothing in visual culture that circulated during the Second World War identification of aviators, but cannot be attributed purely to aiding the British rather can be regarded as a deliberate attempt to influence the British perception of Royal Air Force aviators. 1 Dress include: The film, Directed by Carol Reed, 1944, Two Cities Films, London, England. The newspaper advertisement for c Have 1 to See You Through I , London, England, 3 October 1940, p. 3. The cartoon, London, England, British Cartoon Archive, Canterbury, Kent, England, 5 February 1942, JL2029. 2 The Reprint Society, London, England, 1958, p. Guy Gibson in James E. Johnson, 172. Examples of this resentment include: Michael Joseph, London, England, 1971, p. Spike Milligan, 57. Royal Air Force Museum Archive, London, England, X005 James Storrar, 4835/002, 1940, pp. 2 3. 6 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 This article argues that the widespread symbolic use of Royal Air Force flying clothing in visual materials produced by the British Air Ministry and Ministry of Information can be equated to propaganda in promoting the Royal Air Force during the Second World War. The symbolic use of Royal Air Force clothing in this way had three purposes: firstly, it served to facilitate audience identification of Royal Air Force aviators; secondly, it promoted public interest and fascination in the work of the Royal Air Force; and thirdly, flying clothing served as a visual metaphor to frame the aviators as experienced, hardy, and battle ready. The word, propaganda, is highly contentious, and laden with negative connotations and associations, such as its use in obscuring atrocities from unknowing populations or imposing the rule of autocratic governments through fear. Despite the popularity of these negative associations, there exists vast historiographical debate over the definition of propaganda, with contributions from numerous historians and political scientists.3 Although they inevitably differ in their parameters for defining what is and what is not propaganda, most authors agree that the nature of the message and the manner of its propagation is irrelevant to its categorisation as propaganda, and therefore counter productive in any definition of propaganda. Indeed, as Harold Lasswell eloquently put it, Propaganda, considered as the technique of controlling attitudes by the manipulation of significant symbols, is no more moral or immoral 4 than a pump 3 For examples of historical definitions, see: , and David Welch, , ABC Editors, CLIO, Santa Barbara, California, United States, 2003, pp. 319 323. For more recently suggested definitions, see: David Welch, The British Library, London, England, 2013, pp. 28 30. Randal Marlin, Broadview Press, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 2002, pp. 15 23. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, California, United States, 2006, p. 7. 4 The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, United States, Volume 38, Number 3, April 1928, p. 264. 7 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Accordingly, the ethical questions around the word, propaganda, have been disregarded in this approach to the subject. Instead, propaganda is defined in this article as any visual material that promotes, or includes favourable representations of, Royal Air Force aviators either produced by, or with the approval of, the British government or governmental entities, primarily the Ministry of Information, Air Ministry, and Royal Air Force for public distribution within Britain. This scope includes posters and books produced by governmental departments; newsreels for which footage was screened and pooled by the Ministry of Information before distribution to newsreel production companies; and feature films produced with the aid of the Air Ministry and Royal Air Force before being censored by the Ministry of Information. Media that fall outside of this definition, such as cartoons or unpublished personal testimony, will be taken not as propaganda, but as representations of public opinion. definitions, primarily This definition is based on a combination of other those proposed by the authors, David Welch, Garth S. Jowett, and Victoria 5 The material used in this article has been sourced from archives in both the United Kingdom and New Zealand, primarily the archive collections of the Imperial War Museum, College London, Royal Air Force Museum, Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongawera, and Air Force Museum of New Zealand. Additionally, digital archives were drawn upon, including those of of London, and along with the British Cartoon Archive, and Mass Observation Online. Films, where inaccessible online, were viewed in DVD form. All sources were identified either by keyword searches for a variety of terms relating to the Royal Air Force, aviators, and propaganda in online catalogues for each of these collections. Although the term, air crew, is a more technically correct term for Royal Air Force flying personnel, this article instead uses the word, aviator, due to the latter wider public recognition. Additionally, the former term could be taken to imply only personnel who composed the crew of multi person aircraft such as bombers, with the exclusion of pilots flying single person aircraft such as fighters. The term, flying clothing, refers to the equipment aviators wore over their uniforms while flying to protect them from the extreme cold and lack of oxygen encountered at high altitude in their unpressurised aircraft. It also refers to equipment worn in flight for use in the event of an emergency, such as parachutes, which aviators would use should they need to bail out, or life preservers to keep an aviator afloat after landing in the sea. Welch, op cit., pp. 28 30. Jowett and 5 7. 8 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 The flying clothing considered in this article is limited to four specific articles of clothing or equipment: 1. The 1930 Pattern Flying Suit and its derivatives, a cream coloured or olive coloured cotton one piece overall known as the Sidcot, named for its inventor, Sidney Cotton (1894 1969), and illustrated in Figure 12. 2. The brown sheepskin Irvin Jacket, visible in Figure 8, the top half of the Irvin Flying Suit. 3. The 1932 and 1941 Pattern Life Preservers, both nicknamed Mae West in homage to the Hollywood actress, Mae West (1893 1980), seen on the chests of the aviators in Figure 10. 4. The many varieties of leather flying helmets, goggles, and oxygen mask combinations used by the Royal Air Force during 1939 1945, examples of which are depicted in Figures 3, 4, and 9.6 These items were selected based on the frequency of their appearance in the visual material accessed in the surveyed archives. Other items of flying equipment, such as flying boots and parachute harnesses, were excluded from this article due to the relative infrequency of their occurrences in the material examined. At present, no known official memorandum produced by the Ministry of Information, Air Ministry, or Royal Air Force proves or disproves the existence of any concerted campaign to use and promote flying clothing in these agencie domestically distributed propaganda material. Therefore, this article explores the stated hypothesis through a study of the visual material located in the previously listed physical and digital archives, using visual analysis to identify patterns in the use of flying clothing and infer conclusions from the form and frequency of its appearances. These sources have been divided according to how they utilised flying clothing into the three categories previously outlined: those materials that used flying clothing to facilitate the identification of aviators by their audiences; those materials that promoted flying clothing to encourage public interest in the work of the Royal Air Force; and those materials that utilised flying clothing to imbue their aviator characters with favourable attributes of hardiness, virility, and battle readiness. Each of these three categories will be covered sequentially, beginning with identification, the most frequently appearing and least inferential of the three uses of flying clothing. For further information on these pieces of equipment and practical use, see: Osprey Publishing, London, England, 1990. Andrew Cormack, 6 9 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Flying Clothing as Identification The flying clothing that appeared in visual materials produced during the Second World War allowed the audience for this material to readily identify Royal Air Force aviators. The symbolic use of flying clothing is best exemplified in posters, where the limitations imposed by space and the need to have messages as brief, eye catching, and understandable as possible prevented the use of long explanations of occupations and backgrounds. Posters featuring Royal Air Force aviators produced by His Stationery Office (HMSO) often gave no written explanation of the occupation, relying solely on the inclusion of flying clothing to featured identify the aviators to the audience. Such is the case with the undated HMSO poster (Figure 1) in which a smiling aviator with his flying helmet in one hand and parachute in the other, wears a parachute harness over a Mae West life preserver.7 The text 8 about aerodromes or aircraft The lack of a warns readers to not written explanation indicates HMSO anticipated that the flying clothing worn by the central character would be sufficient to ensure the audience recognised his occupation. Additional evidence can be found in the undated poster 9 As the poster contains no text beyond its title, the man photographed is only identifiable as an aviator by his bulky ensemble of Sidcot flying suit, parachute harness, gauntlets, flying helmet, and goggles. In both examples, interpretation of the the symbolism of the flying clothing is pivotal to the intended messages. Poster, Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, 490 x 740 mm, Printed by Brent Press Ltd., London, England, Publishe Office, London, England, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 13955. 8 Ibid. 9 Poster, Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, 556 x 830 mm, Manufacturer Unknown, Distributor Unknown, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 14222. 7 10 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Figure 1: Detail, Poster, Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, 490 x 740 mm, Printed by Brent Press Ltd., and Published by His Stationery Office, London, England, © Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art. IWM PST 13955. 11 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 While posters such as and used photographs of real or ostensibly real Royal Air Force aviators, others presented cartoons or drawings of imagined Royal Air Force aviators. (Figure 2) and Posters such as illustrated aviators thickly insulated by the one piece Sidcot overall, as well as helmet, parachute harness, and gauntlets.10 Once again, both of these examples make no specific written acknowledgement of their central occupations, merely reinforcing the visual cues of flying clothing and aircraft with 11 references to the and their work environment being in the Figure 2: Detail, Poster, Owen Miller, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, 507 x 762 mm, Printed by Fosh and Cross Ltd., Published by Ministry of Aircraft Production, and Stationery Office, His London, England, © Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art. IWM PST 14276. Poster, Owen Miller, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, 507 x 762 mm, Printed by Fosh and Cross Ltd., London, England, Published by Ministry of Aircraft Production, London, London, England, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 14276. Poster, Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, 508 x 748 mm, Manufacturer Unknown, Distributor Unknown, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 14220. 11 Ibid. 10 12 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Other posters omitted full body portraits of aviators in favour of illustrations that focus on the head and shoulders. In the posters the flying helmets and (Figure 3) and goggles worn by the men serve as the primary visual evidence of their occupation as aviators.12 The poster along with its support companion piece , thereby using its visual symbols with references in bold print to the characters both imagery and literary references to help their audiences identify the aviators.13 (Figure 3), offer no direct Other posters, such as literary explanation that its central character is a Royal Air Force aviator. Instead, relies on the symbolism inherent in the flying clothing worn by the aviator as identification, with the only written mention of aviation being the small credit to the Ministry of Aircraft Production at the bottom right 14 hand corner. The flying symbolic role can therefore be likened to that of the steel helmet in such posters as its connection to the Royal Air Force being so strong that this headgear could appear by itself and yet still clearly identify its wearer as an aviator.15 Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, 502 Poster, x 753 mm, Printed by Fosh and Cross Ltd., London, England, Published by Ministry of Aircraft 12 Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 14262. Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Poster, Lithograph, 378 x 1522 mm, Printed by Stafford and Company, Netherfield, Nottingham, England, Published by His Majesty's Stationery Office, London, England, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 14261. 13 op cit. 14 op cit. 15 Poster, Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, 505 x 760 mm, Printed by J. Weiner Ltd., London, England, Published by His ngland, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 13953. 13 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Figure 3: Detail, Poster, Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, 502 x 753 mm, Printed by Fosh and Cross Ltd., Published by Ministry of Aircraft Production, and Stationery Office, London, England, His © Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art. IWM PST 14262. 14 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Harnessing the potency of flying helmets and goggles as symbols of the Royal Air Force, aviators were easily distinguished in propaganda materials from steel helmeted British Army and sailor capped Royal Navy personnel. Representations similar to (Figure 3) and were included in posters those used in that promoted messages of inter service unity or encouraged men to enlist. In the (Figure 4), one man from each service points towards poster, 16 the viewer. Each is dressed differently, with the aviator wearing a flying helmet and goggles, indicating that these particular garments were considered defining traits, separating the Royal Air Force aviator from his compatriots in the British Army and Royal Navy. A similar focus on headwear in imagery created by The Ministry of Labour and poster series. In National Service can be seen in their an aviator is the air force edition of these posters, depicted wearing a flying helmet with its oxygen mask dangling on his shoulder above the collar of his largely obscured Irvin Jacket.17 By comparison, and illustrated a soldier wearing a 18 steel helmet and a sailor with a blue cap, respectively. Given the similarities between the postures, dress, and faces of the characters in the three posters and those in it seems plausible that the drawn figures in the latter poster were adapted from the photographs in the former. By capturing and using a photograph of an aviator wearing a flying helmet, the producers of the original poster series either believed the piece of flying clothing to be the most recognisable visual symbol of Royal Air Force aviators, or desired it to be so. Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, 488 x 746 mm, Poster, Printed by Fosh and Cross Ltd. London, England, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 14435. 17 Poster, Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, 508 x 760 mm, Printed by J. Weiner Ltd., London, England, Published by Ministry of Labour and Natio Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 14277. 18 Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, 506 x Poster, 762 mm, Printed by J. Weiner Ltd., London, England, Published by Ministry of Labour and National Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 14423. Poster, Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, 507 x 760 mm, Printed by J. Weiner Ltd., London, England, Published by Ministry of Labour and National 16 Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 14032. 15 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Figure 4: Detail, Poster, Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, 488 x 746 mm, Printed by Fosh and Cross Ltd., Published by His Stationery Office, London, England, © Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art. IWM PST 14435. In each of the selected posters, aviators served as the focal point in the images and in this way strengthened the messages by personalising their appeals. Audience recognition of these characters as aviators was central to the comprehension of the intended messages therein. However, these aviators were either anonymous or rendered as such, and their identity as Royal Air Force aviators was revealed primarily by their garb and only indirect literary references made to their occupation. Flying clothing was central to the public image of Royal Air Force aviators during the Second recognition World War, and as a result saw regular use in posters to aid of aviators whose images had been used to support a range of goals including recruitment, armament production, and public morale. 16 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 To Fascinate the Audience Not only did flying clothing serve to identify aviators in visual material, but it was also used in propaganda to feed the high level of public fascination in the Royal Air Force. The enthusiastic response to a display of aviation related material by the Auxiliary Air Force (WAAF) at London department store in August 1940 was discussed in a government report that observed, The main points of interest were in two corners, in one of which was the British parachute and model of British Airman 19 in flying dress, and in the other the German So profound was the equipment that no one was paying visitor interest in this display of 20 WAAF life and wor This example highlights any attention to the flying potential to inspire and intrigue the British public during the Second World War. Stories propagated across multiple forms of visual media stoked public interest in Royal Air Force flying clothing by focussing on the technological sophistication of the equipment used by Royal Air Force aviators while flying. One article from the annual publication titled, for (Figure 5), used a photograph of an unnamed air gunner to name and explain the uses of the he wore raids over Germany and Italy 21 In the HMSO published book, the pre operation activities were described in detail and included not only the items of clothing worn but the order in which they were donned and their use in the aircraft.22 Mass Observation Archive, The University of Sussex Special Collections, The University of Sussex, Falmer, Sussex, England, Report No. 323, 5 August 1940, p. 3. 20 Ibid, pp. 2 3. 21 circa 1939 1945, Odhams Press, London, England, 19 22 Anonymous, His Ma 1942, p. 94. 17 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 This overview is accompanied by a photograph depicting a crew silhouetted 23 beneath the nose of a Vickers Wellington bomber, their outlines emphasising the bulky appearance of their flying clothing. The combination of literary and visual emphases on flying clothing could have been a coincidence, but a letter from Richard Peirse (1892 1970), the Commander in Chief of Bomber Command, personally Head of Publications, Robert Fraser (1904 thanks the Ministry of Informatio 1985), for his work selecting and arranging the photographs in , 24 suggests not. In giving particular attention to the flying clothing, Peirse reveals its significance within the scope of the range of activities discussed in relation preparation.25 This evidence suggests that both the Air Ministry and to the Ministry of Information promoted Royal Air Force flying clothing as a means of engaging the British public. The Vickers Wellington was a twin engined medium bomber aircraft operated by The Royal Air Force during 1938 1953. At the outbreak of war in September 1939, the Wellington was the most modern long range bomber operated by the RAF in large numbers. This effectively made it the backbone of Bomber Command during the early stages of its strategic bombing campaign against Germany and northwest Europe while larger four engined bombers, such as the Short Stirling and Avro Lancaster, were still being developed and brought into mass production. As a consequence of its modern appearance and availability, the Wellington received a significant amount of publicity during 1939 1942, featuring prominently in the films and 24 Richard Peirse, Royal Air Force Museum Archive, London, England, H 87/1, 15 October 1941. 25 op cit., p. 94. Anonymous, 23 18 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Figure 5: for circa 1939 1945, Odhams Press, London, England, Unknown Page Number, in Aeroplane Scrap Book 1943 By Rosemary Air Force Museum of New Zealand, Christchurch, New Zealand, 2010/074.1, Photographed by Liam Barnsdale, 7 September 2018. 19 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Feature films also highlighted the flying clothing worn by Royal Air Force aviators. Productions such as the , and devoted entire scenes to aviator protagonists changing into flying clothing.26 By presenting film audiences with protracted scenes of aviators in the act of dressing, the filmmakers offered a behind the scenes look into lives that gave emphasis to the high number of items worn and carried by aviators. Cinematic flying depictions also stressed the bulk and discomfort of Royal Air Force clothing and underscored the lack of grace when wearing parachutes and asked, W lifejackets. As the Ministry of Information short film you hate to be in a straight waistcoat of this kind with only a small part of your face 27 Royal Air Force cartoonist William Hooper (1916 1996) propagated a magazine (Figure 6), similar message in one of his works for the in which he satirised both the bulkiness of the Royal Air flying clothing and the interest of the British public in said clothing, represented by a group of Air Training Corps cadets standing in admiration. 28 Cinematic depictions of flying clothing, while unflattering to the protagonists, underscored the individual value of each item by showing them as distinct component parts of the larger whole, defining them from each other whilst showing how they fitted together to form the image of the fully clad aviator. This process both inspired and slaked the desire for knowledge about lives and equipment. 26 Directed by Harry Watt, 1941, Crown Film Unit, London, England. Directed by Anthony Asquith, 1945, Two Cities Films, London, England. Directed by John Boulting, 1945, Royal Air Force Film Production Unit, Iver Heath, England. 27 Directed by Gerald Sanger, 1940, British Movietone News, New York, New York, United States, 1940, Imperial War Museum, London, England, UKY 263. 28 ar, he darn well is College London, London, England, MISC 21/9, Number 10, January 1942, p. 1. 20 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Figure 6: William Hooper, Prune says he want a Christmas Tree this year, he darn well is Magazine, Department of the Air Member for Training, Air Ministry, London, England, Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives, College London, England, MISC 21/9, Number 10, January 1942, p. 1. Included Thanks to the Trustees of the Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives. 21 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 While feature films showcased the bulky gracelessness flying clothing, newsreels presented their audiences with similarly intriguing insights into its many ingenious designs and uses. In a December 1942 film, titled, the Ministry illuminated the work of northern English cotton of mills in producing flying clothing. In dramatic tones matching the flurry of shots appearing before the viewer, the narrator detailed the production of wire gauze and rubberised cotton, and revealed their respective application in the electrically heated 29 of a rear and life saving Not only did the production, it directly linked the finished products to their newsreel detail these pilots to endure use by aviators, describing how the heated clothing freezing temperatures at high and the value of the atic life saving 30 to of airmen who have come down into the Similar expressions of wonder were elicited by the narrator of January in Flying in discussing flying clothing.31 1945 newsreel story Showcasing the testing of the radically new G suit at a Royal Air Force testing facility, story talked the audience through how the suit was donned, how it the functioned, and its effect on a human subjected to high G forces. In both cases, the newsreel depictions of flying clothing not only detailed their construction but reinforced their connection to the aviators that used them by emphasising their specific use in contemporary aviation. In doing so, the flying clothing seen in the films became more than simply the clothing worn by aviators, but instead was presented as appreciation of the difficulties faced technological wonders that facilitated the by those fighting the war in the air. 29 135, 6 December 1943. 30 Ibid. Imperial War Museum, London, England, WPN British Pathé, London, England, 1145.28, 18 31 January 1945. 22 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Characterising the Aviator as Battle Ready The use of flying clothing in films and staged photographs was intended to reflect the environmental conditions endured by Royal Air Force aviators and thus served to suggest authenticity in such propaganda. Feature films regularly contained aerial scenes shot on the ground, examples including the depictions of fighter pilots talking and .32 The backgrounds in these to one another in film scenes were either superimposed, as was the case of the fighter interception scene form or remained stationary, as exemplified by brief segments in the film of the squadron leader telling one of his subordinates to close formation . Although these scenes were staged, the aviators, seated in their in aircraft, appear as if airborne. This effect was created by the flying clothing they wore, and authenticity was suggested with flying helmets and oxygen masks obscuring their faces. Just as Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger produced dramatic replications from the security of Denham of aerial combat for Studios, the the Ministry of Information, Air Ministry, and Royal Air Force employed flying clothing in their material to present earthbound characters as though in mid flight.33 Numerous photographs of Royal Air Force aviators purportedly taken mid flight appeared in British newspapers and printed propaganda material including posters and HMSO books. In each case, the flying clothing worn by the aviators appearing in such materials suggested that the photographs were taken immediately prior to or series during flight. Two recruitment posters in the Air utilised flying clothing in this manner. One presented a photograph of an air using a sextant as a part of his urous and the other (Figure 7), o 34 a sitting in an aircraft, clearly enjoying his Both men were clad in Sidcots, and in the case of the air observer this operationally ready image was reinforced by the addition of flying helmet, goggles, and gauntlets, giving the impression that the images offered insights into the activities of each role. Directed by Michael Powell, 1939, Brian Desmond Hurst and Adrian Brunel, London Films, Denham, England. op cit. 32 33 Propaganda, 1941 Milton, England, Volume 43, Number 2, October 1997, p. 50. 34 Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph and Letterpress, 504 x 761 Poster, mm, Printed by J. Weiner Ltd., London, England, Published by Air Ministry, London, England, ngland, Art. IWM PST 14642. Poster, Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph and Letterpress, 506 x 760 mm, Printed by Jordison and Co. Ltd., London, England, His England, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art. IWM PST 14635. 23 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Figure 7: Detail, Poster, Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph and Letterpress, 506 x 760 mm, Jordison and Co. Ltd., His Stationery Office, London, England, © Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 14635. 24 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Similarly staged photographs were published in the Air Ministry produced book, including one in which front gunner of a flying 35 boat appears to be aiming his machine gun as though in mid flight (Figure 8). Aside from the impracticality of taking such a photograph from outside of an aircraft mid flight, the exposed face and hands negate that possibility and it is the Irvin jacket that serves to suggest that the photograph was taken mid flight. Similar minor faults can be found in the multiple photographs that make up the poster .36 flight One photograph portrays a scene on an operational flight over Germany as engineer checks his with said engineer shown, wearing a Mae West life preserver, flying helmet and parachute harness, while leaning over his instrument panel in the side of the passageway between the cockpit and navigato desk.37 However, the suggestion that this action scene was photographed mid air is unplugged oxygen tube and disconnected microphone contradicted by the and headphone jack essential kit when flying at high altitude over hostile territory. In both moving and stationary images, therefore, flying clothing played a pivotal role activities to audiences and in lending images the appearance of in identifying action and authenticity. Anonymous, Poster, Artist Unknown, circa 1940 1945, Lithograph, 492 x 354 mm, Manufacturer Unknown, Distributor Unknown, History Collection, Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, Wellington, New Zealand, GH016174. 37 Ibid. 35 36 25 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Figure 8: Front Gunner of a Catalina. He must be incessantly watchful, though many months may pass before he gets a Focke Wulf in his His Stationery Office, London, England, in Air Force Museum of New Zealand, Christchurch, New Zealand, 2018/152.6, 1942, p. 87, Photographed by Liam Barnsdale, 7 September 2018. 26 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 When not used to imply aviators were airborne, flying clothing was often included in propaganda material to symbolise its readiness for action. One particular fighter pilots in the Battle of poster celebrating the victory of the Royal Air 38 few speech Britain couples an extract from Prime Minister Winston with a photograph of a Royal Air Force aviators. The poster depicts a group of aviators, gazing upwards towards the misquotation of speech set against 39 the background of a blue sky. This poster combined the skyward stares of the young aviators with the flying helmets and goggles on their heads to insinuate their readiness of action.40 The Battle of Britain was a protracted air battle between the air forces of Britain and Nazi Germany during July October 1940. Preceded by the fall of France (May June 1940) and evolving into The Blitz (September 1940 May 1941), The Battle of Britain was characterised by the German 38 Sealio the wake of a string of devastating defeats for Britain and its allies, represented a major victory for Britain. Accordingly, The Battle of Britain was, and still is, widely celebrated in Britain as one of the most decisive moments in the Second World War, as the unchecked westward advance across Europe was blunted. 39 Poster, Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, 635 x 1016 mm, Printed by J. Weiner Ltd., London, England, Published by His Art.IWM PST 8774. The aviators depicted in this poster were in reality a bomber crew from 58 Squadron, a fact betrayed by the wings brevets on their chests. More information on the background of the aviators depicted ow, held by the Royal Air Force in this poster can be found in the documents of one ind Museum Archive in the file: Never Was So Much Owed By So Many To So Few, Royal Air Force Museum Archive, London, England, B4246. 40 , op cit. 27 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Similar implications were created in a widely reproduced portrait of Pilot Officer Keith Gillman (1920 1940), showing his smiling, skyward facing features framed by portrait was seen as the perfect flying helmet, mask, and goggles. essence and not only appeared on the encapsulation of Battle of Britain fighter front covers of numerous pictorial magazines such as but was also second featured in internationally distributed posters celebrating the 41 anniversary in 1942, two years after his death. Gillman was even adopted, with the addition of a cigarette dangling precariously close to his oxygen mask, by Silver Fern tobacco in newspaper advertisements (Figure 9) as an anonymous New Zealand aviator, even though he was born in England.42 Figure 9: Silver Fern, Sons of New Christchurch, New Zealand, © Fairfax Media, Sydney, Australia, 1 June 1943, p. 7. Henry Thomas Hopkinson, Published by Edward G. Hutton, London, Front Cover, England, 31 August 1940. Poster, Artist Unknown, 1942, Lithograph, 500 x 381 mm, Manufacturer Unknown, Distributor Unknown, History Collection, Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, Wellington, New Zealand, GH016095. [The Battle for Britain August Poster, October 1940], Artist Unknown, 1942, Lithograph, 989 x 1497 mm, Manufacturer Unknown, Distributed by The Press and Information Services of the British Embassy, Lisbon, Portugal, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 14976. 42 1 June 1943, Christchurch, New Zealand, Silve p. 7. 41 28 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Other representations of Royal Air Force aviators, such as the poster in the Ministry of series (Figure 10), combined flying helmets with lifejackets to suggest that the aviators 43 setting off on a big This staging would have been impractical since were the flying helmets would have hindered their ability to hear King George VI coverage of the event, titled, King (1895 1952) talking to them. shows the pilots leaning forward, and one even lifting the ear Visits Fighter flap of his helmet, to hear the King speaking to them.44 The combination of Sidcot flying suits, Mae Wests, flying helmets, and parachute harnesses were also used in other depictions of aviators to suggest their readiness for action. A poster showing the crew of the Short Stirling bomber depicted the crew lined up as though waiting to climb through its entry hatch, 45 to take off for a raid over enemy The suggestion of readiness, clothing, is called into question by the fact that supported primarily by the not all crewmembers in the image were carrying parachutes, an indispensable piece of equipment for any flight. Other representations of the naming ceremony during story MacRoberts which the photograph was taken, including the Reply reveal the crew did indeed take off in the aircraft, but were unaccompanied by others from their squadron, as would be expected for an operational flight, and simply performed a low fly past for the cameras. 46 Each of these posters indicate that, despite its impracticality when worn on the ground, flying clothing was regularly used to symbolically authenticate images purporting to show Royal Air Force aviators immediately prior to operational flights. Artist Unknown, circa 1942, Poster, Lithograph, 380 x 507 mm, Manufacturer Unknown, Distributor Unknown, Air Force Museum of New Zealand, Christchurch, New Zealand, 2017/131.7. 44 4 May 1942, British Pathé, London, England, 1326.06. 45 , Author Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, Poster, 1014 x 762 mm, Manufacturer Unknown, Published by Ministry of Supply, London, England, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 14973. 46 6 November 1939, British Pathé, London, England, 1027.17. 43 29 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Figure 10: Detail, Poster, , Artist Unknown, circa 1942, Lithograph, 380 x 507 mm, Manufacturer Unknown, Distributor Unknown, © Air Force Museum of New Zealand, Christchurch, New Zealand, 2017/131.7, Photographed by Liam Barnsdale, 7 September 2018. 30 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Not all representations of aviators purporting to be captured immediately prior to operational flights relied solely on flying clothing for their appearance of activity. Uniquely popular among representations of Royal Air Force aviators, particularly fighter pilots, were images of the scramble pilots running to their aircraft in response to an urgent call to action. Depictions of Royal Air Force aviators scrambling for their aircraft featured across multiple media throughout the war, and films including the opening exemplified by Posters such as scenes of both and .47 Numerous press photographs taken by Royal Air Force photographers and distributed via the Ministry of Information similarly promoted the scramble as a regular component of Royal Air Force exciting lives. In a pictorial story revealing a day in the life of an in A Sweep by Australian Spitfire squadron in England, reported by an Australian Squadron the magazine dedicated a half page to a photograph of four pilots sprinting for their aircraft wearing Mae West life preserver used the energy of the scramble to entice readers (Figure 11).48 into reading beyond the front page, including a photograph of a Royal Air Force pilot running wearing a Mae West between the bold title in a Big and caption 49 the hurry? See Page In each case, the aviators were shown running towards their aircraft, with the immediacy of their scramble reinforced by their flying clothing, suggesting that their immediate future included operational flying. Harold Forster, 1940, Lithograph, 506 x 764 mm, Manufacturer Poster, Unknown, Published by Ministry of Information, London, England, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art. IWM PST 14800. Directed by Leslie Howard, 1942, D&P Studios, Denham, England. op cit. 48 27 November 1941, British Pathé, London, England, 1137.25. heir planes, followed by the station terrier 47 Aeroplane Scrap Book 1943 Christchurch, New Zealand, 2010/074.1, Number 32, November 1942, p. 30. 49 London, England, Liddell Hart Centre for Military London, England, MISC 64, 11 June 1942, p. 1. 31 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Figure 11: Detail, from their dispersal huts to their planes, followed by the station terrier The Continental Publishers and Distributors Ltd, London, England, in Aeroplane Scrap Book 1943 By Rosemary © Air Force Museum of New Zealand, Christchurch, New Zealand, 2010/074.1, Number 32, November 1942, p. 30, Photographed by Liam Barnsdale, 7 September 2018. purported environment, flying clothing characterised Just as it defined a aviators as experienced and hardy in numerous propaganda depictions. In their with the RA newspaper recruitment advertisement series, the Royal Air Force promoted a specific set of characteristics as being desirable in its aviators. One with the instalment published by in January 1941 described e sort of man who can rally a flagging forward and preferred applicants as kind of back who seldom lets the attackers and possessing quickness of eye, the sureness of hand, the powers of endurance of the man who is at games. 50 London, England, Advertisement, 15 January 1941, p. 6. 50 32 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Others in the series featured large photographs or drawings of aviators to reinforce such rhetoric. In one photo published in May 1941, depicted RAF oil stained, tousle haired, and clad in Irvin jacket with cigarette in one hand and flying helmet in the other. The image of this experienced veteran merely reinforced the written message, describing first class as sort that knows and [his] element in a by instinct just how much he can ask from his 51 against By depicting aviators in flying scrap all the more so when clothing alongside written characterisations, the Royal Air Force promoted flying clothing as a visual symbol of said characteristics, which included bravery, professional skill, and physical prowess. Implications of hardiness and battle experience were echoed by artists such as Cuthbert Orde (1888 1968) and William Rothenstein (1872 1945), who visited Royal Air Force fighter and bomber airfields to produce their character studies of numerous works included flying clothing not only aviators. Ord and as a reflection of the location of production, but as a method of emphasising the experience and weariness of the subjects.52 So successful was Rothenstein in this War Advisory Committee venture that the Ministry of recommended the purchase of his portraits of RAF and later exhibited them alongside depictions of Royal Air Force subjects by Orde, Paul Nash (1889 1946), Keith Henderson (1883 1982), and John Mansbridge (1901 1981) as rapidly growing collection of war records 53 examples of Newsreel stories such as of the similarly emphasised flying clothing as a symbol of battle experience, as did officially produced photographs such as who Proved their Worth Heroes of Heligoland Air Advertisement, London, England, 14 May 1941, p. 7. Makings of a First Class Pilot, 51 52 : nt Pilot Who was Decorated for Gallantry while Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM ART LD 421. Crayon, 200 x 501 mm, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM ART LD 5. of the Battle of Britain Some of those London, England, 19 April 1941, pp. 518 519. 53 London, England, 13 July 1940, p. 58. , March 1940, p. 5. , London, England, 14 London, England, 24 August 1940, p. 6. 33 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 (Figure 12).54 Both photographers used flying clothing not only to imply the depicted readiness for battle as in George VI Meets Pilots of Fighter but as evidence of their recent return from battle. of the stated unequivocally that the aviators depicted being inspected by King 55 George VI were in their flying kit, just back from flights over Accordingly, even in cases where no explicit written or verbal reference was made to characteristics, flying clothing visually indicated that the depicted aviators had recently returned from combat, thereby framing them as battle hardened heroes taking an active role in the conflict. Figure 12: who Proved their Worth Heroes of Heligoland Air Charles Gwynn and John Hammerton, Editors, The Amalgamated Press, London, England, © The Air Force Museum of New Zealand, Christchurch, New Zealand, 2011/256.2, Number 11, 11 March 1940, pp. 420 421, Photographed by Liam Barnsdale, 7 September 2018. British Pathé, London, England, 6 November 1939, 54 1027.17. r Worth Charles Gwynn and John Hammerton, Editors, , The Amalgamated Press, London, England, The Air Force Museum of New Zealand, Christchurch, New Zealand, 2011/256.2, Number 11, 11 March, 1940, pp. 420 421. 55 British Pathé, London, England, 6 November 1939, 1027.17. 34 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Conclusion This article has shown that the Ministry of Information, Air Ministry, and Royal Air Force extensively used flying clothing in propaganda material such as posters, books, films, and photographs disseminated during the Second World War. This served three purposes: to identify Royal Air Force aviators, to fascinate the audience with work, and to characterise aviators as either battle ready or Royal Air Force already embattled. Such usage relied on an assumption that the British public understood the connection between Royal Air Force flying clothing and the aviators who wore it. During the course of the war, the frequency of visual material such as posters, feature films, newsreels, and other media featuring aviators wearing the Sidcot flying suit and Irvin jackets, Mae West life preserver, and flying helmets gave the British public extensive exposure to the image of aviators wearing flying clothing. The underlying messages and purpose of the frequent depictions of Royal Air Force aviators in visual material during the Second World War varied, such as promoting enlistment, factory production, or scrap donation. For example, the poster featured aviators as a means by which to encourage viewers to join the service, aimed to more broadly encourage public while the book, sympathy for Royal Air Force aviators. All visual representations considered during this research presented a favourable portrayal of aviators and their work and thus served to raise their profile in the eyes of the audience. Therefore, despite different underlying messages, the visual representations analysed in this article were connected war by a secondary objective to promote the Royal Air Force and its role in effort. The repeated use of flying clothing in the visual representations examined in this article suggests that this clothing served as a valuable symbol in the pursuit of this secondary objective. The frequency of flying clothing in the selected British visual material examined here suggests that its use was far from accidental. This inference is supported by the nature of these appearances, with depictions of aviators in flying clothing regularly included to sensationalise or add realism to the material. Given that the majority of these images were staged, the inclusion of flying clothing in visual material cannot have been borne out of practical necessity. Furthermore, in some cases such as the poster, the wearing of flying clothing by the aviators was not only an unnecessary one, but a hinderance to them.56 Accordingly, it is argued that the images produced by the the Ministry of Information, Air Ministry, and Royal Air Force featuring flying clothing were more than simply reflections of reality. Rather, they were carefully orchestrated political images designed to encourage public recognition of, interest in, and appreciation of Royal Air Force aviators and their work. 56 35 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Bibliography Primary Sources: Unpublished Never Was So Much Owed By So Many To So Few, Royal Air Force Museum Archive, London, England, B4246. Mass Observation Archive, The University of Sussex Special Collections, The University of Sussex, Falmer, Sussex, England, Report No. 323, 5 August 1940, p. 3. Peirse, Richard, England, H 87/1, 15 October 1941. Storrar, James, England, X005 4835/002, 1940. Royal Air Force Museum Archive, London, Royal Air Force Museum Archive, London, Primary Sources: Advertisements Advertisement, You Through I Minutes of Hero Worship Have a No. 1 to See London, England, 3 October 1940, p. 3. with the RAF: Intercepted and Advertisement, England, 15 January 1941, p. 6. with the RAF: the Makings of a First Class P Advertisement, London, England, 14 May 1941, p. 7. Advertisement, Silver Fern, Sons of New Christchurch, New Zealand, 1 June 1943, p. 7. 36 London, The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Primary Sources: Articles in a Big Military Archives, 1942, p. 1. London, England, Liddell Hart Centre for College London, London, England, MISC 64, 11 June by War Artists: Records of Historical England, 24 August 1940, p. 6. London, Artists: Salaried Posts and Work on England, 14 March 1940, p. 5. London, Primary Sources: Artwork Front Cover, Henry Thomas Hopkinson, Published by Edward G. Hutton, London, England, 31 August 1940. who Proved their Worth Heroes of Heligoland Air Photograph, in C. Gwynn and J. Hammerton, Editors, The Amalgamated Press, London, England, The Air Force Museum of New Zealand, Christchurch, New Zealand, 2011/256.2, Number 11, 11 March 1940, pp. 420 421. Orde, Cuthbert, A Czech Sergeant Pilot Who Was Decorated for Gallantry while Flying with the Royal Air 19 September 1940, Chalk, 315 x 486 mm, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM ART LD 421. Officer J V C 1940, Sanguine Crayon, 200 x Rothenstein, William, 501 mm, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM ART LD 5. Primary Sources: Books Anonymous, 1942. His Stationery Office, London, England, Anonymous, 1942. His Stationery Office, London, England, Johnson, James E., The Reprint Society, London, England, 1958. 37 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Milligan, Spike, England, 1971. Michael Joseph, London, Primary Sources: Cartoons Prune says he want a Christmas Tree this year, he Hooper, William, darn well is Air Ministry, London, England, p. 1, Liddell Hart College London, London, England, MISC 21/9, Centre for Military Archives, Number 10, January 1942, p. 1. Through: Daily Round, Common Lee, Joseph Lee, London, England, British Cartoon Archive, Canterbury, Kent, England, 5 February 1942, JL2029. Primary Sources: Feature Films Directed by Gerald Sanger, 1940, British Movietone News, New York, New York, United States, Imperial War Museum, London, England, UKY 263. Directed by John Boulting, 1945, Royal Air Force Film Production Unit, Iver Heath, England. Directed by Harry Watt, 1941, Crown Film Unit, London, England. Directed by Leslie Howard, 1942, D&P Studios, Denham, England). Directed by Michael Powell, 1939, Brian Desmond Hurst and Adrian Brunel, London Films, Denham, England. Directed by Carol Reed, 1944, Two Cities Films, London, England. London, England. Directed by Anthony Asquith, 1945, Two Cities Films, 38 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Primary Sources: Magazines Face of the Fighter Pilot: Victors of the Battle of Britain Orde, Cuthbert, Some of those Who Won the Fight Against the Winged Invaders, London, England, 19 April 1941, pp. 518 519. for Odhams Press, London, Aeroplane Scrap Book England, Unknown Page Number, in By Rosemary Arnold Air Force Museum of New Zealand, Christchurch, 1943 New Zealand, 2010/074.1. Rothenstein, William, Air Force Types Drawn by Sir William London, England, 13 July 1940, p. 58. from their dispersal huts to their planes, followed by the station terrier The Continental Publishers and Distributors Ltd, London, Aeroplane Scrap England, Number 32, November 1942, p. 30, in Book 1943 By Rosemary Air Force Museum of New Zealand, Christchurch, New Zealand, 2010/074.1. Primary Sources: Newsreels Sweep by an Australian Pathé, London, England, 1137.25. of the England, 1027.17. 27 November 1941, British 6 November 1939, British Pathé, London, Goes to Museum, London, England, WPN 135. 6 December 1943, Imperial War in Flying London, England, 1145.28. 18 January 1945, British Pathé, King Visits Fighter England, 1326.06. 4 May 1942, British Pathé, London, 39 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Primary Sources: Posters Poster, [The Battle for Britain August October 1940], Artist Unknown, 1942, Lithograph, 989 x 1497 mm, Manufacturer Unknown, Distributed by The Press and Information Services of the British Embassy, Lisbon, Portugal, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 14976. Poster, Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, 378 x 1522 mm, Printed by Stafford and Company, Netherfield, Nottingham, England, Published by His Majesty s Stationery Office, London, England, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 14261. Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Poster, Lithograph, 490 x 740 mm, Printed by Brent Press Ltd, London, England, Published by His Stationery Office, London, England, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art. IWM PST 13955. Harold Forster, 1940, Lithograph, 506 x 764 mm, Poster, Manufacturer Unknown, Published by Ministry of Information, London, England, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art. IWM PST 14800. Artist Unknown, circa 1939 Poster, 1945, Lithograph, 556 x 830 mm, Manufacturer Unknown, Distributor Unknown, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 14222. Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Poster, Lithograph, 502 x 753 mm, Printed by Fosh and Cross Ltd, London, England, Published by Ministry of Aircraft Production, London, England, and His Stationery Office, London, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art. IWM PST 14262. Poster, Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph and Letterpress, 506 x 760 mm, Printed by Jordison and Co. Ltd., London, England, His Stationery Office, London, England, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 14635. Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph and Letterpress, Poster, 504 x 761 mm, Printed by J. Weiner Ltd., London, England, Published by Air Ministry, London, England, and His Stationery Office, London, England, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 14642. 40 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Poster, Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, 505 x 760 mm, Printed by J. Weiner Ltd., London, England, Stationery Office, London, England, Imperial War Published by His Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 13953. Artist Unknown, circa Poster, 1942, Lithograph, 380 x 507 mm, Manufacturer Unknown, Distributor Unknown, Air Force Museum of New Zealand, Christchurch, New Zealand, 2017/131.7. Artist Unknown, 1942, Lithograph, Poster, 500 x 381 mm, Manufacturer Unknown, Distributor Unknown, History Collection, Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, Wellington, New Zealand, GH016095. Artist Unknown, circa Poster, 1939 1945, Lithograph, 635 x 1016 mm, Printed by J. Weiner Ltd., London, Stationery Office, London, England, Imperial England, Published by His War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 8774. Poster, Artist Unknown, circa 1940 1945, Lithograph, 492 x 354 mm, Manufacturer Unknown, Distributor Unknown, History Collection, Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, Wellington, New Zealand, GH016174. Artist Unknown, Poster, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, 508 x 748 mm, Manufacturer Unknown, Distributor Unknown, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 14220. Author Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Poster, Lithograph, 1014 x 762 mm, Manufacturer Unknown, Published by Ministry of Supply, London, England, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 14973. Poster, Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, 488 x 746 mm, Printed by Fosh and Cross Ltd., London, England, Published by His Stationery Office, London, England, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art. IWM PST 14435. Poster, Owen Miller, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, 507 x 762 mm, Printed by Fosh and Cross Ltd., London, England, Published by Ministry of Aircraft Stationery Office, London, Production, London, England, and His England, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art. IWM PST 14276. 41 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Poster, Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, 506 x 762 mm, Printed by J Weiner Ltd, London, England, Published by Ministry of Labour and National Service, London, England, and His Stationery Office, London, England, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 14423. Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Poster, Lithograph, 508 x 760 mm, Printed by J Weiner Ltd, London, England, Published by Ministry of Labour and National Service, London, England, and His Stationery Office, London, England, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 14277. Poster, Artist Unknown, circa 1939 1945, Lithograph, 507 x 760 mm, Printed by J Weiner Ltd, London, England, Published by Ministry of Labour and National Service, London, England, and His Stationery Office, London, England, Imperial War Museum, London, England, Art.IWM PST 14032. Secondary Sources: Articles Function of the Lasswell, Harold D., The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, United States, Volume 38, Number 3, April 1928, pp. 258 268. Mackenzie, Simon P., Target: The Air Ministry, RAF Bomber Command and Taylor & Francis, Milton, Feature Film Propaganda, 1941 England, Volume 43, Number 2, October 1997, pp. 43 59. David Welch, Editors, , ABC CLIO, Santa Barbara, California, United States, 2003, pp. 317 323. Secondary Sources: Books Cormack, Andrew, England, 1990. Osprey Publishing, London, Jowett, Garth S. and Victoria, Publications, Thousand Oaks, California, United States, 2006. 42 Sage The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Marlin, Randal, Ontario, Canada, 2002. Broadview Press, Toronto, The British Library, London, Welch, David, England, 2013. 43 The Journal of Dress History Volume 4, Issue 3, Autumn 2020 Copyright © 2020 Liam Barnsdale Email: liamzl3lb@gmail.com Liam Barnsdale recently completed his Master of Arts in History at Victoria University of Wellington in New Zealand. His dissertation, titled, examines depictions of Royal Air Force personnel in multiple media during the Second World War, identifying and analysing the symbols and characteristics systematically used in these depictions. Since April 2020, Liam has been studying towards a PhD at The University of Queensland, Australia. His doctoral thesis will examine secondary school cadet training in Australia and New Zealand during the Second World War from the perspective of those undergoing the training, using oral history to compare differing experiences across national, regional, and socio economic boundaries. 44