Evolution

In 1985, Abilene Christian University was rocked by a controversy over the alleged teaching of evolution by two biology professors. The two-year conflict was an existential crisis for the university, which relied on students and donations from many of the rural Texas Churches of Christ most opposed to evolutionary theory.

A review of hundreds of letters, internal memos and other materials – as well as interviews with students, faculty, administrators and board members from the era – allows historians for the first time to assess the accuracy both of the allegations themselves and of the university’s blanket denial of them.

Understanding Consciousness, second edition provides a unique survey and evaluation of consciousness studies, along with an original analysis of consciousness that combines scientific findings, philosophy and common sense.

Building on the widely praised first edition of the book, this new edition adds fresh research, and deepens the original analysis in a way that reflects some of the fundamental changes in the understanding of consciousness that have taken place over the last ten years.

The book is divided into three parts; Part I surveys current theories of consciousness, evaluating their strengths and weaknesses. Part II reconstructs an understanding of consciousness from first principles, starting with its phenomenology, and leading to a closer examination of how conscious experience relates to the world described by physics and information processing in the brain. Finally, Part III deals with fundamental issues such as what consciousness is and does, and how it fits into the evolving universe. As the structure of the book moves from a basic overview of the field to a successively deeper analysis, it can be used both for those new to the subject and for more established researchers.

Understanding Consciousness tells a story with a beginning, middle and end in a way that integrates the philosophy of consciousness with the science. Overall, the book provides a unique perspective on how to address the problems of consciousness and as such will be of great interest to psychologists, philosophers, neuroscientists and other professionals concerned with mind/body relationships, and all who are interested in this subject.

Shamanism and psychedelics are central to understanding the evolutionary roots of ecopsychology and its basic principles. The ancient ritual roots of shamanism constituted the context within which psychedelic experiences contributed selective influences to the evolution of human neuropsychology. Both shamanic psychology and ecopsychology involve a neuroepistemology that reflects the neurotransmitter effects of psychedelics on cognition. Shamanism contributed to the development of our ecopsychology through influences on psychological, social and cognitive evolution. Shamanism embodies the concept of animism, the notion of the spiritual essence of all nature which is recognized as the core of the oldest of humanity’s religious beliefs. Shamanism provided the context within which this animistic attitude and the sense of the sentience of the many entities of the world were developed, especially in the relationship to animals. Animal species and their variant qualities provided a natural metaphoric system to structure psychological development and the evolution of social organization. Within the context of shamanism, the worlds of animal species and spirits intertwined in the creation of symbolic potentials for the differentiation of self – embodied in animal spirit powers – and the collective identity of society – embodied in totemic animals. This incorporation of the elements of nature into personal powers and social identity made shamanic ecopsychology a basic feature of human nature and culture.

DNA barcoding has great potential as a species identification tool because it is practical and affordable to perform and, more often than not, shows species-level separations. Currently, efforts are on to barcode all major groups of animals including insects and millions of species have been barcoded. Other than as a species identification tool, DNA barcoding has been applied to solve many complex ecological phenomena. DNA barcoding is emerging as a simple and very reliable tool for studying host-parasitoid interactions and to establish the host range of phytophagous insects which has changed the perspective of many food webs. DNA barcoding has shown potential as incontestable identification tool for biosecurity purposes with global application. DNA barcoding is also being utilised to document the biodiversity of past and present with reasonable efficiency.

Disclaimer:
This literature extract was gathered purely and subjective according the interests of the author (Manfred Bundschuh). Usually there were complete sentences from the original transferred. Especially the Table of Contents is my invention, elaborated 30 years after the excerption of the text, in order to facilitate the readers orientation. There's no guarantee for correctness.

Literaturauszug aus Humberto R. Maturana/ Francisco J. Varela: Der Baum der Erkenntnis - Wie wir die Welt durch unsere Wahrnehmung erschaffen - die biologischen Wurzeln des menschlichen Erkennens, Bern u.a. 1987

1. Vorwort der Autoren             1
2. Vorwort des Übersetzers     2
3. Die große Versuchung   2 
3.1 Das Erstaunliche des Auges   3
3.2 Der große Skandal           3
4. Erklärung           3
4.1 Die Organisation des Lebendigen   4
4.2 Das Erscheinen der Lebewesen   4
4.3 Autonomie und Autopoiese   5
4.4 Geschichte: Fortpflanzung und Vererbung   5
4.5 Vorgänge bei der Reproduktion   5
5. Entstehungsweisen von Einheiten   5
5.1 Replikation                   5
5.2 Kopie                   6
5.3 Reproduktion           6
5.4 Die zelluläre Reproduktion           6
5.5 Reproduktive Vererbung           6
6. Das Leben der Metazeller   7
6.1 Strukturelle Koppelung   7
6.2 Lebenszyklen           8
6.3 Die Organisation der Metazeller   8
6.4 Das natürliche Driften der Lebewesen   9
6.5 Determination und strukturelle Koppelung   9
7. Ontogenese und Auslese 10
7.1 Evolution als natürliches Driften 10
7.2 Voraussagbarkeit und Nervensystem 11
7.3 Die Gratwanderung         11
8. Verhalten und Nervensystem 12
8.1 Nervensystem und Erkenntnis 12
8.2 Neuronale Struktur         12
8.3 Das interneuronale Netzwerk 13
8.4 Operationale Geschlossenheit des Nervensystems 13
8.5 Plastizität         14
8.6 Angeborenes und erlerntes Verhalten 14
9. Erkenntnis und Nervensystem 14
9.1 Die sozialen Phänomene         15
9.2 Soziale Phänomene und Kommunikation 15
10. Semantische Beschreibungen 16

Vorwort der Autoren: Wir werden nämlich eine Sicht vortragen, die das Erkennen nicht als eine Repräsentation der "Welt da draußen" versteht, sondern als ein andauerndes Hervorbringen einer Welt durch den Prozeß des Lebens selbst. Um dieses Ziel zu erreichen, werden wir einer an streng logischem Vorgehen orientierten Route der Entwicklung von Konzepten und Ideen folgen, auf der jedes Konzept auf vorange-gegangenen Konzepten aufbaut, bis das Ganze zu einem unzerteilbaren Netzwerk geworden ist .... Als Ausgleich für die vom Leser erwartete Anstrengung haben wir das Buch durch zahlreiche Illustrationen aufgelockert-auch, weil wir immer wieder die alte Erfahrung bestätigt gefunden haben, daß ein Bild oft mehr sagt als tausend Worte. Außerdem haben wir die zentralen Begriffe in ein "vernetztes" Diagramm eingeschrieben, das die Route unserer Entdeckungsreise darstellt.

The discussion of the Theory of EVERYTHING has been continued with a concerted interest on physicality, and in particular, the concept of Dark Matter and consciousness embodiment, making a reference to the advent of Core Manifestation Body Template or concept of Morphogenetic Field. It is elucidated that contrary to the erroneous conjecture of the mainstream science, Dark Matter is not just something that is only simply responsible for gravity. Indeed, it is true that Dark Matter epitomizes what ‘holds’ everything together in physicality. Yet, Dark Matter is not just regular matter that is only indigenous to 3D physicality, nor is “dark” by any means, both in terms of its Light quotient and frequency of vibration. Dark Matter manifests itself as plasma waves that has a spectral density that begins from highly comparatively lower constitution, and thus, high Light quotient and frequency of particulate (as well anti-particulate) vibration, all the way making the fabric of the to the 81st space-time dimension, to that of our Harmonic Universes, as well as forming our consciousness embodiment. Indeed, it is better to altogether dispense with the terminology of “Dark” and replace it with “Stealth” matter. In fact, Dark Matter is the essence or the substance of what emerges from the eternal spirit of the God-SOURCE. And, Dark Matter epitomizes what constitutes and builds the layers of our Lightbody that, in turn, give rise to the formation of our material atomic body. Thus, the Dark Matter body may be viewed as the connection link that exists between the eternal spiritual Light SOURCE body of the Prime Creator and the finite level of our Light source body. The Core Manifestation Body is governed by the Dark Matter Template, the blueprint or the instruction sets that our Eternal Source Particle Atoms and Molecules are built in order to generate the layers of our Eternal Light Body determining our bioenergetics, in turn, giving rise to our morphogenetic field that forms the DNA and RNA structure of our genetics. And, all this entails is the conversion of energy into matter. Dark Matter Template holds a cell that has the instruction set for the Elemental Body that is specific to the matter substance that is connected to a specific Harmonic Universe (e.g., HU1, HU2, HU3, and even HU4), and thus, provides the very means for our very consciousness embodiment. Note that quantum field affects the organization of the
Space-time or ‘dimensions,’ which in turn, determines the structure of the timelines that forms the Nebadon Time Matrix that defines our 4 holographic Harmonic Universes. This is what is commonly referred to as the 12D Grid or Tree of Life, the blueprint matrices of the Time Matrix that make up the layers of the Morphogenetic Fields of the Earth, as a macrocosm, and in turn, us, as the microcosm that determine our Consciousness reality and evolution. This establishes a system of communication that connects and realigns Earth and its planetary Light body structure via certain portals and stargates to the rest of the Cosmos, something that may be described as ‘holographic geography,’ the geometric intelligence that connects all the star systems in our local universe to the surface grid of our planet. Note that any changes in the Dark Matter Template Body (the ‘Rasha Body’), signifies a shift occurring in our physical body and physicality. And, in turn, any change in our orientation in matter, signifies a change in the fabric of space-time dimension to which our consciousness is anchored. Accordingly, a review of our quantum consciousness embodiment structure within the Nebadon Universe that may be classified under the concepts of ‘Soul Aspects,’ ‘Soul Expression,’ ‘Oversoul,’ and ‘Avatar’ matrix that was initially depicted by the ‘Carousel-Wheel of Consciousness’ by the author, is re-articulated, herein. Finally, a brief discussion of the relevance of magnetic energies discharge to the Planetary Dark Matter Body Template and the nature of the subtle energies, as well as Gravity, Black-White Holes, and Wormholes has been presented.

Part I – Spirilla Theory and Cosmology
Stephen Hawking once proclaimed that String Theory may be able to unify the various forces although later he became disillusioned thinking that there may be no Theory of Everything. This very condensed book pulls together the various forces into the Spirilla Theory which supersedes String Theory and introduces the Relativity of Consciousness.

The foundation of the Spirilla Theory is based on the writings of H. P. Blavatsky, A. B. Bailey, and A. Besant. By overlaying the works of Einstein, Bohm, de Broglie, Dirac, Bell and other great scientific minds, on top of the foundation, the unification of the various forces and theories starts to appear; each field of study supplying a part of the puzzle but only a holistic view of ALL endeavors will solve the mystery. The book starts by laying the groundwork through the Introduction, a review of Bell’s Theorem and p-adic mathematics; following this, each major section begins with a quote from the foundational works followed by the quotes from scientific papers demonstrating the current known thinking on the various topics; no attempts are made to edit the works (except with a few exceptions for clarity and/or length) of the various authors and references to the scientists’ works are maintained. Each section is pulled together so that a picture can be seen.
This section;
1. Redefines the atom with the addition of a subquark;
2. Defines the Spirilla Theory which unifies Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity, and explains Quantum Entanglement;
3. Defines new particles;
4. Redefines time and space;
5. Defines and solves the mystery of Black Holes and links the cosmic and quantum black hole through the spirillae;
6. Delves into the mystery of the Macroverse;
7. Outlines the steps in the origins of the universe;
8. Adds an equation to Einstein’s original 1905 paper on relativity which sees the speed of light approaching infinity;
9. Gives the foundation for developing space travel; and, as an appendix,
10. Gives detailed information for the development of a new energy source – Quantum Energy.

Part II - Ontology, Epistemology & Manifestations
Part II is divided into three sections:
1. Ontology and the fundamental concepts of reality which discusses:
a. consciousness and delves into the mystery of human consciousness having cosmic origins;
b. reincarnation and gives the various laws affecting rebirth, with a discussion on the principle of mutation and the perfecting of form;
c. the work of form-building, transmutation of form and the building of a human form.
2. Epistemology which covers a great deal of topics however; for the purposes of NOE the subject is restricted to;
a. evolution including a definition of the Law of Evolution, the cyclic ebb and flow and the rhythmic work of creation, the process of substitution, the evolution of man and the genesis of the pithecoid stocks; and
b. death including the processes of death, two main reasons for cremation and the sequence of events at death.
3. Manifestations of the various religions including:
a. why Christians don’t believe in reincarnation;
b. the coming science of invocation and evocation;
c. Quantum Entanglement Over Time (QEoT) or The Law of Cause and Effect, and The Law of Karma with a discussion on The Golden Rule ; and
d. The New World Religion.

In the paper, we express some doubts about one of the assumptions
of Robert Carneiro’s model on state (and chiefdom) formation,
namely the role of circumscription. In our opinion, the main flaw of
Carneiro’s original theory of state formation is that it implicitly
assumes that every community dreamt to conquer its neighboring
communities. We test the presence of various types of warfare (such
as conquest warfare, land acquisition warfare, and plunder warfare)
in societies with different degrees of political centralization.
Quantitative cross-cultural tests reveal a rather strong correlation
between political complexity and the presence of conquest warfare
suggesting that conquest warfare was virtually absent among
independent communities. Newer works by Carneiro propose a
model explaining how simple chiefdoms could appear in the absence
of conquest warfare. This model also includes circumscription, but
our analysis suggests that it is unnecessary.

The advent of seeding of the Nebadon Universe has been discussed. It is explicated that this event was carried out by the Angelic Oraphim individuals of highly refined crystalline consciousness who have happened to have completed one or more full course of evolutional rounds in similar universes, who ventured in seeding a ‘raw’ uninhabited domain called Nebadon, possibly having taken such a task with respect to setting up other new universes before. Accordingly, these beings are referred to as the Nebadon ‘Founders’ who after seeding Nebadon have made full commitment to uphold the Right of Sovereignty and Free Will of all its inhabitants, and function in the capacity of ‘Guardians’ ensuring that the provisions of the Law of One are upheld and revered, making every attempt to ensure that the new inhabitants of Nebadon will have an opportunity to naturally evolve after having attained appropriate requisite frequencies-Light quotients via experimenting the various sojourns of life streamed upon them as natural-organic holographic programs of reality to choose from to experiment with within varied space-time dimensions within the Nebadon Time Matrix, leading to their consciousness evolution. It is further elucidated that there is no doubt that the Guardian-Founders of Nebadon Universe took this upon themselves as to create a highly special Angelic Oraphim being referred to as human beings with the potential of 12D DNA strand crystalline silicate-matrix genetics to eventually take up the responsibility to serve as the new Guardians of Nebadon Universe. Furthermore, there can be no doubt that this project referred to as a ‘Turaneusiam’ human prototype was to be carried out on the 5D Earth (Tara) within Nebadon’s Second Harmonic Universe with 12 of highest extra – transdimensional beings volunteering to offer one strand  of their DNA as to serve devising such a Turaneusiam prototype. It was agreed by the Guardian-Founders that the new Angelic human with the newly designed 12D crystalline silicate-based DNA would have all their 12 DNA strands initially assembled, yet only 5 fully activated to have the requisite accreted frequencies-Light quotients to function being commensurate with the 5D consciousness field of 5D Tara. It was envisioned that the humans would initially take the guardianship of the 5D Tara, and then progressively learn to activate the rest of their 7D crystalline DNA strands climbing the steps of the devised 12D Grid-Tree of Life eventually attaining their status of full 12D Strand crystalline consciousness as the first level Oraphim and subsequently would take up the Guardianship of the entire Nebadon universe, relieving the Guardian-Founders of the task of overseeing the consciousness affairs of the Nebadon Universe so they can perhaps move on to creating-seeding new ‘raw’ and uninhabited universes. Accordingly, the seeding program started in Lyra known as the ‘Cradle of Civilization’ through a system of white holes referred to as the triad  universal stargates known as the 12D Aramatena, 11D Aveyon, and 10D Vega. Unfortunately due to a parasitic-vampiric rogue and nefarious group of individuals and their ancestors collectively now referred to as ‘negative aliens,’ this project did not fully succeed, specifically with establishing Nebadon Universe as a new God’s World conforming to the Law of One, or its envisioned evolutional plans for its inhabitants including the human beings. And, although it is not clear that, indeed, the human Angelic project was devised from the beginning and prior to seeding the Nebadon Universe, or it became a necessity afterwards, there can be no doubt that the human being as the Crown Jewel of all Nebadon inhabitants were designed as to try to repair the rip created in the Nebadon space-time, and after the destruction of the principle triad stargates and its natural-organic system of Time Matrix by the negative aliens. Clearly, the human DNA serves as the storehouse of knowledge regarding the genetic details of all beings within Nebadon Universe, as well as a library source for God’s consciousness mechanics. Furthermore, human being’s morphogenetic system is the only one that can connect back Nebadon to the Zero-Point Field and the Divine Mind of the Prime creator, once attaining back its full crystallinity trait. In this manuscript, the preliminaries for the initial seeding of the Nebadon Universe are discussed, leaving more details with regard to the Lyran Matrix and what is referred to as the ‘Royal Houses of Lyra’ involving certain entities having incarnated there as the contributors and the predecessor races to the Taran Turaneusiam project, in a companion paper.

This paper sheds light on the role of evolutionary ideas in
the making of Turkish nationalism during the Kemalist era
(1923–1938). By so doing, it aims to challenge some of the
dominant historiographical viewpoints as to the nature of
Turkish nationalism. One is related to the Kemalist elites'
predisposition towards the so-called “scientism” seen as
one of the bases for nationalism. We intend to turn upside–
down the relation between the Kemalists' use of science
and Turkish nationalism. Second, we problematize the “culturalist”
origins of Turkish nationalism arguing that the
seemingly “culturalist” reflections of the time were, indeed,
materialist formulations based on the science of the times.
We discuss in this respect the Kemalist elites' use of evolutionary
ideas. By synthesizing the ways in which these elites
employed evolutionary ideas in the fields of history, language,
geography, anthropology, biology, eugenics, and
pedagogy, we aim to understand the specific nature of
Turkish nationalism before 1945. This secular nationalism
conceived culture as having materialist bases and differed
fundamentally from the culturalist varieties of Turkish
nationalism coloured by Islam in the post-1945 era. Furthermore,
the paper empirically enriches the complex and
entangled story of evolutionary ideas in the early Turkish
Republic.

Passive optical network (PON) is one of the most successful broadband access architectures being deployed worldwide. PONs provide high capacity, increased reach, and low-power consumption at a very reasonable cost, on par with the cost of DSL deployments today. This paper provides an overview of present and emerging PON technologies, and discusses PON's important role in the evolution of optical access from the architectural perspective. While describing the evolution of optical access architecture, we present two important integration options: optical+wireless access integration and metro+access integration. Potential PON capacity upgrades are discussed with special emphasis on achieving a seamless upgrade. We evaluate different PON evolution strategies in the context of next-generation PON, where gradual, demand-based migration demonstrates a number of significant benefits.

Donald Hoffman, Gerçekliğe Karşı kitabına "Kırmızı hapı sunuyorum." diyerek başlıyor. Evrim, gerçekliğin hakikatini bizim yararımıza olacak şekilde değiştirir diyor ve arayüz argümanını sunuyor. İnsanlığın tür olarak hayatta kalma kabiliyetlerinde, evrimsel süreçlerin izini sürüyor.

Donald Hoffman'a kitabının önsözünü çevirmeme izin verdiği için teşekkür ederim

Slowly but eventually, we have arrived at a place in this digitally transforming world from where there is no returning-as marketing has always found its way around into any piece of content, whether it is a written communication or a viral YouTube video. Influencer Marketing has changed the entire course of how marketing is perceived now. Today, any campaign starts from setting an appropriate tone for the brand to getting the right influencers on board to maximize reach.

The domesticated dog was used not only to protect properties and warn of approaching animals or humans by barking day or night, but also it was used to hunt and even as pet as a man’s close friend for centuries. The origin of dog always has been a controversial issue. The majority of the scientists from Belgium, Canada, Finland, France, Germany, Portugal, Russia and USA claimed that domestication happened in Europe but domestication time was not definite. Also some scientists from China, Sweden and USA claimed that the domestication happened in Southeast of Asia. At last one scientist from Israel claimed that possible origin of dog was Middle East. Altogether there is still no definite answer about place and time of domestication.

Population of loggerhead turtles nesting in the Mediterranean Sea has probably evolved from the North Atlantic (NA) population, but is geographically and genetically distinct. We aggregated previously published and new unpublished data, and took two approaches to comparing these populations: an empirical one based on statistical analyses of morphological data, and a physiological one based on a Dynamic Energy Budget (DEB) model. We then analyzed causes of faster growth and maturation, but smaller size at puberty and ultimate size of the Mediterranean (MED) loggerhead turtles relative to their NA conspecifics. The empirical analysis showed that young juvenile, sexually mature, and fully grown MED individuals were consistently smaller in terms of length and mass. The physiological approach suggested physiological adaptations of the MED population to higher salinity and scarcer food availability. In particular, these adaptations included an increase in somatic maintenance needs, and a decrease in energy investment to reach and maintain sexual maturity. Our study therefore offers a mechanistic underpinning of previously observed but unexplained life-history traits, and showcases an application of DEB theory as a tool for comparative analysis of two distinct populations of the same species.

Technology is a concept rife with confusion. Here, I argue that technologies can be distinguished as a combination of type of producer and an idealized artefact life history. Using this definition, a number of technologies are identified. The first technology historically, in the Protostomes, was the production of individual or family dwellings. Next came objects such as spider webs for trapping prey. Stigmergy followed, with the social insects, as a collective endeavour to construct a mega-structure using simple rules of accretion. Some birds and primates began to make tools, or simple technological objects whose function is closely related to their form. Humans are distinguished by their ability to make machines. Traditional technology took place once people voluntarily organised into groups with specialised knowledge to produce more complex objects and structures. Monumental objects like ceremonial pyramids came with the command economies of the early agrarian societies, which also resulted in a new category of artefact, the network. Finally, with modern civilizations came ad hoc accretion, or population-level adding-on, to make truly complex technological systems. Developing a theoretical framework within which artefacts, production processes and ways of interacting with them are identified should help the study of technology to become more scientific.

Over the course of years, and as of more recently, many followers-friends of the author have been asking questions with reference to the Melchizedeks and their role in humanity-Earth Ascension. Below, you will find a sample of such questions posted to the author as of more recently, and the response to some of these questions, which were also later posted as slides for the benefit of the all. Herein, via the publication of this paper, you will find a more detailed response to such questions and concerns pertaining to the coerced role of fallen Melchizedeks with reference to cooperating with the negative aliens.

Abstract
The discussion of the Guardian-Founders’ seeding the Nebadon Universe is continued that makes a particular reference to the Cradle of Lyra with the so-called ‘Royal Houses of Lyra,’ 13D-15D Light Beings who are accredited with seeding the Nebadon Universe through their so-called incarnations in the Nebadon’s 4th Harmonic Universe. These are androgenous beings composed of crystalline liquid Light that upon anchoring their consciousness on a form of their congealed energies forming the fabric of the space-times within the 4th Harmonic Universe that serve as a scaffold comprised of matter-antimatter, give them the possibility to have a form of embodiment that acts as silhouette or vibration sheets of Light. And, among these groups were the 15D Emerald Order Elohei who incarnated as the hominid White Felines Elohim angelic beings referred to as the Anuhazi who incarnated through the 12th Stargate in Lyra-Aramatena, as well as the 13D Amethyst Order of Solar Rishi comprised of Cetacean, Avian Pegasus people, and aquatic Bra-ha-Rama who incarnated through the 11th Stargate in Lyra-Aveyon, and the 14D Gold Order Seraph RA Confederacy who seeded the Seraphim Cerez Avian bird people and Aethien Mantis Tall Whites of the Solar Rishi through the 10th Stargate in Lyra-Vega. Note that this constitutes three embodiments that are always used to hold the tone sequence in matter-antimatter as the base, overtone, and resonator, or positive, negative, and neutral components. Accordingly, all this, is consistent with the Cosmic Order of Trinity that manifests as a Threefold Founder Flame making the Ray Aspect of the Universe. Of course, due to the reptilian negative aliens intruders, these ‘forms’ hybridized with the reptilians and downgraded to form a variety of hybrid negative aliens races. At the same time, some of the benevolent Founder races had to step down into lower forms such as, for example, the Azurites that were formed from the hybridization of these compassionate Light beings who also created the Interdimensional Free World Council (IAFW) to deal with the problem of reptilian negative aliens infiltration as well as revering and upholding, the provisions of the Law of One, ensuring that all lost souls stuck in the negative aliens Phantom Timelines of Reality are returned to the God’s World, whose right of Free Will and Sovereignty is observed, as well as they are aided through spiritual educational means, etc. to be able to accrete enough higher dimensional frequencies to Ascend to the higher dimensions via acquiring appropriate consciousness expansion and evolution. Although this paper concentrates on such ‘seeding’ preliminaries in exclusively Lyra, the discourse with regard to the negative aliens hybridization and their nefarious acts of wars and tyranny leading to the Fall of Lyra, etc. are postponed to the companion papers.

Philosophers and scientists alike argue that because of conflicting passages within his writings, Darwin may have been a species nominalist. According to this received view, Darwin either used the term ‘species’ for ease when communicating with his fellow naturalists, or merely as a useful organizational term. Elsewhere, I argue that even though Darwin did not offer a definition of ‘species’ within the Origin of Species, he was indeed a species realist. By having utilized two important guiding principles, namely natural selection and the principle of divergence of character, Darwin offered a way to demarcate species from varieties. In other words, Darwin did not define the term ‘species’, but did have a rather robust concept of what a species was and how it differed from a variety.
However, Darwin may have had another option available to him. I would like to explore the possibility that Darwin, aware of the plethora of species concepts available to him, utilized different species concepts in different cases. In other words, I would like to explore the possibility that Darwin was a species pluralist. To illustrate this, I provide examples throughout Darwin’s works when Darwin utilizes different species concepts, such as concepts similar to our contemporary biological, ecological, and genealogical species concepts. I further argue that it is the context and question that Darwin is engaged in that dictates which concept might be fruitful within the situation. In other words, I intend to show that Darwin was a species concept pluralist precisely because he understood that each different concept investigates a different and important part of the world. Therefore, depending on what is being investigated and in what context, Darwin choose which species concept would be most helpful. Moreover, Darwin never clearly or singularly defined species within his works precisely because he was working with a multitude of species concepts rather than one precise definition of species. If I am indeed correct, then Darwin may have anticipated the current trend in philosophy of biology toward arguing for pluralism with respect to species concepts.
The combination of my previous work and the current project suggests a possible reason for the tension felt throughout the Origin of Species. It may have been the case that Darwin utilized guiding principles to determine species, but also found that utilizing various species concepts is a fruitful practices at times. I would like to explore this avenue in hopes to either resolve the tension concerning conflicting passages within Darwin’s writings or provide a plausible way in which to reconcile the passages.

In the Andes of Central Chile, flowering commences 1–2 months earlier on equatorial-(north-) facing than on polar-(south-) facing slopes, and pollinator assemblages also differ between these habitats. In order to understand the potential influence of these differences on gene flow, we monitored flowering periods and insect visitation rates to flowers of 60 individuals of Anarthrophyllum cumingii (Papilionaceae) on two equatorial-and two polar-facing slopes in the Andes of central Chile (33 35 0 S;70 32 0 W). Flowering began about 30 days earlier on equatorial-facing slopes. Flowering periods of individuals on slopes with the same aspect had a mean overlap of 0.52, while those on opposite slopes had a mean overlap of 0.15. On equatorial-facing slopes Yramea lathionoides (Lepidoptera) accounted for 60% of the visits to flowers of A. cumingii, while on polar-facing slopes Centris cineraria (Hymenoptera) was responsible for more than 80% of flower visits. Average similarities of visitor assemblages among individual plants on slopes with the same aspect was 0.83, while the mean similarity between individuals on opposite slopes was only 0.23. Within slopes fluorescent dyes were dispersed up to 40 m from the donor plants, but there was no movements of dyes between individuals growing on opposite slopes, even when they were separated by less than 10 m. Synchronous blooming and a common pollen vector are necessary conditions for pollen exchange between individuals. The overall probability of pollen exchange estimated by multiplying the inter-individual overlap for both factors, was nearly 0.5 for individuals growing on slopes with the same aspect, and less than 0.04 for individuals growing on opposite slopes. Consequently, at equivalent distances, the probability of pollen exchange between individuals growing on slopes of opposite aspect is more than 10-times lower than between those growing on the same slopes. Seed dispersal cannot compensate for restricted gene flow through pollination, because seeds of A. cumingii were dispersed less than 2 m away from a parent plant. Presumably, restricted gene flow could enhance genetic divergence between populations on slopes of contrasting aspects. This factor could be important in contributing to the high diversity and endemism in the Chilean Andes.