Greek Language

This table began as a comparison of Etruscan words to other Indo-European words, and it is clear that the linkage to Etruscan illuminates some new patterns in Indo-European word relationships. We added for further comparison words from the Baltic group (Latvian), Kartvelian (Georgian) and Uralic (Finnish) and Basque, a "language isolate" that looks as much Indo-European as othes in the Indo-European group. For those who advocate Hurrian connections Hurrian words that are available have been added to the table.  *PIE specialists have been speculating on the idea that the three language families, Baltic, Uralic and Kartvelian may be related to Indo-European, perhaps as a super family.
  The Indo-European family of languages is believed to have originated north of the Black Sea (Pontic Region). Some scholars have indicated a Caucasus origin. Although we can't rule out borrowing among [unrelated] languages it appears from the interesting shifts that the languages in our "Indo-European Table may be one family. I found šāl-a, šali, šala (Hurrian)
ასული, asuli, daughter(Georgian); თვით, t’vit’, self (Georgian), sevi, self (Latvian), vete, (Albanian); ხუთი, khut’i, five (Georgian), пяць, piać (Belarussian), pieci (Latvian), pesë (Albanian), pente (Greek) and pajncha (Sanskrit) interesting. (The interesting relationships continue through the table. The table is alphabetically arranged via the right-hand column, Etruscan words.

This article proposes a new formal reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) nouns containing the suffix *–oi–. I argue that both primary and non-primary derivatives in this class had stress alternating between the derivational suffix and the following inflectional ending (e.g., ACC.SG *[-óy-ṃ] vs. GEN *[-y-ós]) rather than the "amphikinetic" alternation between root and inflectional ending (ACC.SG *[´-oy-ṃ] vs. GEN *[-y-ós]) that is traditionally assumed for all primary nominals with suffixal *[o]-vocalism under the widely accepted “Erlangen Model” (Schindler 1975a,b, Rix 1992) of Indo-European morphophonology. Support for this alternative reconstruction comes from Hittite, which confirms that the suffixal stress seen in the Greek reflex of this noun class was inherited from PIE rather than root stress as in Vedic Sanskrit. More broadly, I contend that an adequate account of the prosodic behavior of PIE *–oi-stems requires (i) abandoning the traditional connection between suffixal *[o]-grade and "amphikinetic" word stress; and (ii) adopting a framework (such as the one articulated by Kiparsky 2010) in which the suffix's capacity to attract stress in both primary and non-primary derivation can be modeled in a unified way.

Though Odysseus’ tales to Eumaios and Aninoos in Odyssey 14.199–359 and 17.417–44, respectively, are presented as fictional tales within Homer’s larger myth, some elements have striking analogs in Late Bronze–Early Iron Age reality.

This article examines these portions of the hero’s false ainoi within their fictive context for the purpose of identifying and evaluating those elements. Particular focus is given to Odysseus’ declaration that he led nine successful maritime raids prior to the Trojan War; to his twice–described ill–fated assault on Egypt; and to his claim not only to have been spared in the wake of that Egyptian raid, but to have spent a subsequent seven years in the land of the pharaohs, during which he gathered great wealth.

Through a comparative examination of literary and archaeological evidence from the Late Bronze–Early Iron transition in the Eastern Mediterranean, it is shown that these aspects of Odysseus’ stories are not only reflective of the historical reality surrounding the time in which the epic is set, but that Odysseus’ fictive experience is remarkably similar to that of one specific member of the ‘Sea Peoples’ groups best known from 19th and 20th dynasty Egyptian records: the ‘Sherden of the Sea.’

This paper examines annotations inscribed in three manuscripts by Demetrios Laskaris Leontares (1418 – post-1475), an aristocrat whose possession or use of a dozen codices is documented. Palaeographic and historical criteria place all three texts in his adolescence around the 1430s. The primary focus is tenth-century Laur. gr. 55.4, a well-known collection of military treatises, in which successive generations of the Laskaris Leontares family inserted notices on personal and imperial events (1408-50). Overlooked by previous scholarship, on blank folio 197v Demetrios Leontares penned and signed a short letter addressed to an emperor, which constitutes a rare autograph specimen of Byzantine epistolography. This item was previously transcribed by Bandini (1768), who declined to edit and interpret its ‘barbaric and utterly illiterate’ script. Providing a new edition and first translation, this study situates the text within the evolution of epistolographic conventions in the early fifteenth century, as evidenced in contemporary letters and/or prescribed in letter-writing manuals. Whether interpreted as a draft or copy of an actual letter or a classroom exercise, this short private text adds uncommon ‘domestic’ and documentary dimensions to the study of Late Byzantine rhetoric, ideology and epistolary culture. The investigation widens to include two other undated annotations that can likewise be assigned to Demetrios Leontares’ youth: a co-ownership notice in recently commissioned Marc. gr. Z. 399 (5r) and a previously unpublished missive to an unnamed relative in twelfth-century Vat. gr. 586 (429v). Collective consideration of these three modest informal texts assists in clarifying their contexts and chronology, while elucidating broader themes of children, education, language and books in an aristocratic household.

Odiseja xxii. [Odyssey xxii.] Историјска граматика грчког језика 1 (основне студије), јесењи и прољећни семестар ак. год. 2017.–18., Одјељење за класичне науке, Филозофски факултет, Београд / Greek Historical Grammar I  (BA Course), Winter and Summer Semester 2017.–18., Department of Classics, Faculty of Philosophy, Belgrade. (Teacher notes.) Is the metrical, grammatical and comparative-historical analysis of Odyssey xxii 1–501.

The object of analysis here are the deverbal abstract nouns with roots of Greek origin and Bulgarian suffix. Most of them are motivated by fully adapted verbs borrowed from Greek and of particular interest from the perspective of word formation are the secondary derivatives formed from denominative verbs motivated by Greek nous and adjectives. The transformation of borrowed words into productive bases, which are combined with local word-forming suffixes, is the final stage of the complex process of lexical borrowing, which follows the stage of morphological adaptation of borrowed words, i. e. their grouping into a certain lexical-grammatical type. Many of them have formed large groups of derivatives. Being composed of elements of different languages, the new lexemes are hybrid in nature regarding their word-formation and their separation into a special category reflects the new status of the Greek bases of the borrowings. The hybrid formations of this type are the final result of the assimilation of the Greek loan words into the Bulgarian language, which is why they occupy a specific position in the Bulgarian lexical fund. The use of some of them is dialect or archaic, but they all contribute to the enrichment of the vocabulary and the ways of expression in Bulgarian.

This paper is a response to the diminishing emphasis on biblical languages in theological/ministerial education. It was originally read at Asbury Theological Seminary at a biblical languages seminar hosted by the seminary's Greek and Hebrew clubs.

This short article tentatively explores the nature of different "levels of style" in the Greek of five works belonging to the hagiographical and monastic literature of Late Antiquity, by investigating the distribution of different constructions used to express the future tense in different kinds of textual environment (direct speech, narrative etc.). In particular light is shed on the way the stylistic choices in the direct speech passages of certain texts differ radically from those in other kinds of textual environment, lending some credence to the idea of these passages as representations of, if not the everyday spoken language per se, at least a linguistic form closer to the spoken than that represented by the rest of the text.

During the Roman empire many Greek speakers learned Latin. Their books and exercises, which survive in medieval manuscripts and in papyri from Egypt, show that some of their language-learning techniques were similar to ours and others very different. Some students, interested only in oral proficiency, learned Latin using materials in Greek transliteration. Others learned the Roman alphabet and then read not isolated sentences but complete texts, in a special bilingual format, while learning grammar and syntax from materials composed entirely in Latin. At more advanced levels students used monolingual Latin literary texts, which they read aloud and translated into Greek ; they also translated Greek literature into Latin.

by Joanna Moura

The purpοse οf this study is tο map the prοfile οf patients with aphasia in the οral language areas by analyzing the types of paraphasia. Specifically, the speech samples were acquired from the Greek Corpus of Aphasic Discourse, which consists of examination interviews in aphasic patients. All the interviews took place at Athens Eginition Hospital. Of these samples 26 were annotated and transcribed. The interview techniques were based on the Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination, while the annotation and transcription follow text linguistics conventions. Paraphasias concerning all levels of linguistic analysis in the interviews were identified. The study aims at analyzing and assessing paraphasias of speech of aphasic patients.

L’etimologia del toponimo di Eboli è una questione che affonda le sue radici nella notte dei tempi, e – in maniera plurima – storici locali (e non) hanno affrontato questa problematica di complessa interpretazione.
Qual è, ordunque, il proponimento di questo nuovo lavoro? Affrontare le soluzioni in maniera filologica, approntando il tutto con un corredo di testi greci e latini in cui occorre l’antico nome di Eboli e del fiume Sele; oltre a ciò, verranno mostrate al lettore nuove ipotesi postulate negli ultimi anni, che hanno accresciuto sicuramente il bagaglio culturale concernente l’etimo della nostra città, problematica a noi studiosi ebolitani tanto cara, e reso maggiormente vivace il sano dibattito linguistico e storico, alla ricerca delle nostre origini.
Tale lavoro, nella sua brevità, si propone di essere fruibile e divulgativo, pur conservando, però, la sua chiara impronta scientifica, di ambito squisitamente filologico (nella precisione, si discorre di filologia classica), avendo le citazioni in lingua greca e in lingua latina come protagonisti principali di questo percorso che andremo ad affrontare insieme, partendo da una citazione del magister Pietro da Eboli, valente quale atto d’amore nei confronti della nostra città: Ebolus, dulce solum.

The heterogeneity of the Septuagint is sometimes ignored in the exegetical and theological study of the Bible. However, the Septuagint displays features that vary according to each book that it contains. The objective of this article is to present the state of the research on the LXX of each work in this corpus, just as the points still in debate and thus, to show the multiplicity that constitutes the LXX. This heterogeneity concerning the textual, linguistic and, in some cases, theological character of each book of the LXX must be taken into account by the biblical scholar intending to use it

Το παρόν βιβλίο αποτελεί βοήθημα για το μάθημα της Έκφρασης – Έκθεσης της Α΄ τάξης του Λυκείου. Περιλαμβάνει: 1) Γενικές οδηγίες για την παραγωγή λόγου (παράγραφος – περίληψη – έκθεση), 2) Προσέγγιση της θεωρίας του σχολικού βιβλίου, εμπλουτισμένης και οργανωμένης με την παράλληλη χρήση υποστηρικτικών σχημάτων, 3) Εννοιολογικές προσεγγίσεις (διαγράμματα εννοιών), 4) Κριτήρια αξιολόγησης ανά διάγραμμα έννοιας. Το βοήθημα αυτό διαρκώς ανανεώνεται, επαυξάνεται και βελτιώνεται. Σιγουρευτείτε μέσω του φιλολογικού ιστoτόπου www.filologika.gr ότι χρησιμοποιείτε την τελευταία έκδοση.

Abstract: The argument I will develop in this essay is that the foreign students are a latent human resource who can assist with overcoming English monolingualism in the Australian population. Foreign students, properly rewarded, can be a major source of skills transfer. Every one of those students is a walking compendium of language and cultural skills that Australians need to know.

La proposition consiste à rechercher les catégories indiquées dans le cadre de conditions déterminées d’énonciation. Il s’agit de réfléchir autour de la notion d’agent en considérant deux figures singulières : le héros tragique et le citoyen démocratique, dont les caractères nous conduisent à la situation de l’Athènes du Ve siècle. En conséquence, le problème de la volonté et la constitution d’une notion d’agent responsable seront analysés à partir de l’intersection entre le domaine du discours tragique et le domaine de l’activité politique. Dans la conjonction de ces deux domaines, le problème crucial réside en la décision comme un processus subjectif. Notre idée centrale est que la figure du héros tragique évoque, avec ambiguïté, une antithèse politique mais aussi une métaphore du citoyen démocratique. Le héros tragique est une antithèse du citoyen démocratique parce que celui-ci prend uniquement des décisions comme partie d’une organisation collective, tandis que celui-là se présente en général sous une forme tyrannique. Mais le héros tragique est aussi métaphore du citoyen démocratique dans la mesure dans laquelle le processus subjectif réalisé par le héros opère comme recours de pensée des facteurs impliqués dans la prise de décision des citoyens réunis dans l’assemblée athénienne.

Rozmówki polsko-greckie „Dogadaj się po grecku” powstały z myślą o turystach i osobach mieszkających w Grecji, aby pomóc im dogadać się po grecku w różnych sytuacjach. Oprócz dialogów znajdziesz w nich informacje o kulturze greckiej, ciekawostki gramatyczne i językowe, słowniczki tematyczne i wiele innych informacji, które ułatwią Ci lepsze zrozumienie języka i kultury Greków. Uzupełnieniem rozmówek są pliki audio z wymową greckich zdań i wyrażeń.

Korzystając ze słownictwa zawartego w rozmówkach będziesz mieć pewność, że dogadasz się z każdym Grekiem i w każdym zakątku Grecji!

Слово «хтонь» сразу встало в ряд с другими выразительными современными словами – например, с «хренью», что обеспечило ему дополнительную популярность. Вообще слова, начинающиеся на «х», для носителя русского языкового сознания звучат колоритно и смачно. И пошла «хтонь» в народ – разумеется, в народ преимущественно столичный, гуманитарный, приуниверситетский. Заметно, что красочные термины «хтон», «хтоничность», «хтоника», «хтонизм» понимаются весьма широко, даже расплывчато. Они далеко ушли от буквального, «почвенного», смысла соответствующего греческого корня. В последние десятилетия увлечённость всякого рода «структурами» да «конструктами» настолько въелась в сам способ мышления продвинутых учёных-гуманитариев, что они готовы замечать сконструиро-ванность, конвенциональность, нарочитость, придуманность, социокультурную обусловленность даже там, где налицо естественность – где не «культура», а «природа».  В общем, пора писать диссертации. Вот актуальная тема: что-нибудь не слишком приземлённое о теллурической хтоничности андерграунда (на примере работ Николая Гумилёва и Николая Эрдмана). Монографию выпустить в издательстве «Терра». Научным руководителем мог бы стать философ С. Н. Земляной. Ведущая организация – факультет почвоведения. Защита может состояться на географическом факультете.

This is the syllabus for a Gospel of Mark course taught at the University of Dubuque Theological Seminary during the Fall 2019 semester. The course itself was subdivided between four sections: Greek Exegesis Online, Greek Exegesis Residential, English Exegesis Online, and English Exegesis Residential.

Students in the class were predominately MDiv Students and many were taking the class not only to fulfill an exegesis course requirement but also in preparation for the exegesis portion of ordination exams for the PCUSA.

Today, an increasing number of people are continuously occupied with mobile devices in their hands, totally focused on the use of social media. This research aims to explore the participation in social media networks and chatting applications as well as the spelling performance of teenagers (13-19 years old) and young adults (20-30 years old). The relevance of this research is that previous studies have studied the impact of social media use on literacy with languages based on Latin script. The focus of the present study is on Greek, a language with a script originating in Phoenicia. The study seeks to explore the effect of social media network use, identifying specific social media network sites and chat applications chosen by the participants, as well as how much time they spend on these platforms. This study also seeks to determine participants’ perceptions about and usage of the hybrid language of Greeklish—a combination of Greek and English—in digital communication. This study contains a self-report of participants’ language competency in the Greek language and the effects of social media and Greeklish usage on participants’ orthography skills. The study employs the use of questionnaires to extract information about participants’ social media usage as well as to measure spelling skills via two spelling tasks in Greek. Participants are divided into two groups, defined by age: Group 1 includes teenagers, and Group 2 includes young adults. The findings revealed that young adults scored higher than teenagers on spelling tasks, and these young adults tend to participate less in or have a more negative attitude toward social media than teenagers. Another crucial finding is that participants spending more time on social networking sites correlates to lower performance on spelling tasks. Moreover, increased social media participation correlates to an increased usage of or a positive attitude toward Greeklish. The initial research question was partly confirmed, since age, not the use of social media platforms, affected spelling skills. The data analysis was conducted with SPSS. The contribution of this study is of interest to Greek society and language institutes and will be novel for languages based on different scripts than Latin.

La lingua greca, da quando per la prima entrò in contatto con le popolazioni dell’Italia antica, non ha mai smesso di influenzarne i linguaggi. È del risultato di questa influenza, continuativa e sostanziale, che si cerca di dare una visione d’insieme, la più chiara ed esaustiva possibile. In quest’opera, che non è né vuole essere una storia della lingua greca, viene quindi fotografato lo stato attuale dei rapporti tra il greco e le altre lingue europee (o dovremmo dire indoeuropee). Oltre 3000 parole greche, siano essi prestiti o antiprestiti poco cambia, un vasto repertorio di nomi propri di origine greca, radici, suffissi, prefissi, costituiscono un potente strumento di dialogo tra le lingue qui prese in esame, che, grazie ad essi, si rivelano più vicine di quanto non si immagini. Un secondo fenomeno, poi, quello dei calchi, ovvero la traduzione delle parole greche in latino, iniziato già nella Roma arcaica con Andronico e proseguito con autori quali Plauto e Cicerone, ha fatto sì che si creassero neologismi latini, ma dall’anima profondamente greca.  Prestiti ed antiprestiti paralleli e calchi permettono dunque di dire che la provocazione “parliamo greco” non è poi così lontana dalla realtà.  Fondamentale per quest’opera è tuttavia cercare di evidenziare quanto questo patrimonio linguistico, profondamente penetrato nelle varie lingue, possa essere impiegato per mettere in comunicazione le moderne lingue europee tra di loro; far sì che esse possano riconoscersi reciprocamente sorelle. La lingua greca, che essendo nel DNA delle lingue europee, continua ad essere impiegata per creare straordinari neologismi, si rivela essere uno strumento di decodificazione, ma anche di produzione di concetti. Anche oggi la Grecia continua a ricordarci, che, volente o nolente, ogni popolo che  sia entrato in contatto con la sua lingua ha da lei ricevuto in omaggio un patrimonio archetipico, duttile, creativo, capace di far riscoprire la necessità di sentirsi comunità umana, al di là dei confini politici, oggi più o meno esistenti.

This Excel file is a WORK IN PROGRESS on Indo-European basic lexicon, aligning PIE reconstructions from IEW, LIV and Mallory-Adams with intermediate reconstructions of IE sub-families found in several other sources (mainly Brill / Leiden etymological dictionaries): see dedicated sheet for details on sources.
Reconstructions with a green background have more complete data than those with a white background.
This DRAFT database is intended as a stepping stone for researchers who want to explore external genetic relationships between Indo-European languages and other language families.

Rad se bavi rečima stranog porekla u klasičnom arapskom jeziku, koji se koristio pre pojave islama i u prvim vekovima po njegovom nastanku, a koji je intenzivno preuzimao reči iz persijskog, grčkog, sirskog, latinskog, hebrejskog i drugih jezika. Predstavljen je istorijski okvir u kom je dolazilo do jezičkih kontakata i navedeno 100 reči stranog porekla koje su ušle u klasični arapski jezik, razvrstanih prema etimološkom kriterijumu, uzimajući u obzir i intenzitet uticaja koji su pomenuti jezici izvršili na klasični arapski. Navedeni su prevodni ekvivalenti svake reči, i to na osnovu Arapsko-bosanskog rječnika Teufika Muftića (u prva dva izdanja: Arapsko-srpskohrvatski rječnik), pri čemu je identifikovano više reči stranog porekla koje se javljaju u oba jezika. Analizirali smo i druge podatke koje Muftićev Rječnik nudi u vezi sa pomenutim rečima stranog porekla – grafološke varijacije, morfološke odlike osnovnih oblika i množina izvedenih iz njih, kao i semantičke specifičnosti.
Ključne reči: reči stranog porekla, jezičko pozajmljivanje, adaptacija pozajmljenica, klasični arapski jezik, Arapsko-bosanski rječnik, Teufik Muftić.

Las lenguas indoeuropeas son lenguas flexivas: esto significa que tienen declinaciones y conjugaciones. Los casos caracterizan la
flexión nominal en griego y en latín, de manera que declinando un nombre y, por tanto, cambiando sus terminaciones podemos
expresar diferentes funciones sintácticas. A la sintaxis casual se añade la sintaxis preposicional: las preposiciones completan las
nociones expresadas por los casos. En nuestro trabajo (que se dividirá en cuatro partes) estudiamos preposición por preposición,
comparando las dos lenguas para ayudar a los alumnos y profesores de secundaria en la enseñanza y aprendizaje del griego y el
latín.

This article presents the topic of the conference that was held at Polis Institute in January 2015 and the different contributions that were made there and that have been published in the proceedings. The article presents as well the conclusions were reached on the library of Alexandria at the end of the conference.