History of pharmacy

WHILE PHARMACOPOEIAS like the Parisian Codex medicamentarius governed the world of apothecaries in ancien régime France, there also existed a parallel and more loosely organized tradition whereby pharmaceutical innovators were granted exclusive royal privileges for the sale of novel therapeutic preparations, called “secret remedies.” These privileges in effect granted legal monopolies over the sale of a given drug. Many privilege holders held no formal medical credentials and were not members of the medical corporations—the faculties and colleges of physicians, or the guilds of surgeons and apothecaries.

Resumo Este texto pretende analisar alguns livros de receitas manuscritos e publica-dos dos séculos XVII e XVIII nos quais se encontram preparados de culinária a par de outros dedicados a questões de higiene e beleza e mezinhas utilizadas na época, numa mistura comum neste tipo de documentos, em que se entrelaçam permanências e ruturas. Palavras-chave: Botica, Cozinha, Época Moderna, Portugal. Abstract This paper aims to examine manuscripts and published Portuguese recipe books of the seventeenth and eighteenth century, with cooking recipes and other ones about hygiene and beauty and also medicines used at the time. This mixture was very common at the time in this type of documents. "Curar as doenças é bom, mas evitá-las é ótimo. Ora quando este salutar intento se dirige à primeira infância, é sem dúvida, o melhor benefício que se pode prestar à humanidade. Velar pela vida e robustez da criança é uma necessidade imperiosa, tanto para as nações ameaçadas pelo perigo da despopulação (sic), como para aquelas que, como a nossa, se encontram na eminência dum outro talvez maior-o da degeneração da raça. Tudo quanto se faça para entravar a marcha deste vírus que rói pouco a pouco a mentalidade, a energia e o caráter da criança portuguesa, merece o aplau-so veemente e o auxílio inconcusso de todos os que amam sinceramente a sua pátria". Mário de Mesquita Lopes 1 A frase em epígrafe integra uma pequena brochura, publicada em 1915, que publicita o Lactogenol, um produto manipulado pelo farmacêutico Mário de Mes-quita Lopes, destinado às mães que amamentassem. Ao tomá-lo evitavam a falta 1 Mário de Mesquita Lopes, Lactogenol (registado), preparado por…, Lisboa: Tipografia da Cooperativa Mi-litar, 1915, pp. 5-6.

La farmacia en Granada en el siglo XVIII
José Luis Valverde

En el presente estudio, nos proponemos dar una visión general
de lo que fue la farmacia en la Granada del siglo XVIII, en sus
tres vertientes fundamentales: La Oficina de farmacia, la Famacia
hospitalaria y la Farmacia conventual y monástica.
Sumario: I. Introducción. II.-Algunos aspectos generales de la Granada del siglo XVIII.- III. Aspectos médico-farmacéuticos.-IV. Farmacia hospitalaria. IV-1. La regulación de los servicios farmacéuticos del Hospital de Santa Ana. IV.2. El suministro de medicamentos al Hospital del Refugio. IV.3. Otros Hospitales. V. Farmacia Monástica y Conventual. VI. Oficinas de Farmacia. VI.1. Los Boticarios y la renta del aguardiente. VI. 2. Boticarios de Granada a mediados de siglo.

Medicine and Healing in the Premodern West traces the history of medicine and medical practice from Ancient Egypt through to the end of the Middle Ages. Featuring nearly one hundred primary documents and images, this book introduces readers to the words and ideas of men and women from across Europe and the Mediterranean Sea, from prominent physicians to humble healers. Each of the book’s ten chronological and thematic chapters is given a significant historical introduction, in which each primary source is described in its original context. Many of the included source texts are newly translated by the editor, some of them appearing in English for the first time.

The article examines one kind of medical services, i.e. pharmaceutical services, in 16th century Vilnius. It uses various sources, among which Lithuanian Metrica entries predominate. It establishes that two main groups of pharmacists operated in the city from 1522 to 1602: pharmacists who were Vilnius residents and the pharmacists of the king and magnates who moved to the city. In all, no less than 31 pharmacists offered their services to 16th century city residents. At one time city residents could expect the services of from 2 (at the beginning of the century) to 4 -5 (in the second half of the 16th century) pharmacists who were Vilnius residents. It presents thumbnail biographies of representatives of this profession. These biographies describe both groups of pharmacists working in the city through the social aspect. According to their social origin almost all the pharmacists who were Vilnius city residents were urbanites. Foreigners, i.e. Poles and Germans, occupied dominant positions among them. According to the amassed wealth, 16th century Vilnius pharmacists were among the city's richer residents. Knowledge of professional pharmacist activities is fairly poor. It is known that they prepared medicines in accordance with doctors' prescriptions and that they were assisted in this work by apprentices - journeyman pharmacists. This makes their activities similar to a guild organisation. Vilnius pharmacists lived and founded their pharmacies in the city's centre, mostly on Pilies - Didžioji Street. The article revises statements about the oldest pharmacy in Vilnius. Statements established in historiography about the royal pharmacy that relocated from Poland to Vilnius in 1506 are not reliable. But between 1506-1509 Sigismund the Old did actually buy a lot in order to erect a pharmacy in Vilnius. This is the first definite fact connected with the oldest pharmacy. In addition, between 1510 and 1521 another pharmacy founded by Vilnius Palatine Mikalojus Radvila operated in the city.

Der Efeu (Hedera helix) ist seit Langen in Mythologie (Osiris, Dionysos) und Heilkunst Europas und Asiens verwurzelt. Er symbolisiert den Wechsel von Werden und Vergehen, aber auch ewiges Leben. Die mittelalterlichen Ärzte waren uneins über seine Wirkungen, die verbreitetsten Indikationen waren Kopf- und Zahnschmerzen, chronische Katarrhe, Durchfall, Geschwüre, Entzündungen und Brandwunden. Daneben galt Efeu als Verhütungsmittel, vor dessen abortiver Wirkung gewarnt wurde. In der Moderne kamen noch Gicht und Rheuma hinzu. Aktuell steht die Behandlung von Erkrankungen der Atemwege im Vordergrund.

Η προκείμενη μελέτη, σχετίζεται με την ιστορία της ιατρικής στην αρχαία Ρώμη. Στην ανακοίνωση αυτή, θα εξεταστεί αρχικά η εμφάνιση των πρώτων ιατρικών κοινοτήτων της αρχαίας Ρώμης καθώς και η εξέλιξή τους. Καθώς η ανακοίνωση αυτή διχοτομείται θεματικά, ανάμεσα στην ιατρική και στην δημόσια υγεία στη Ρώμη ,σε δεύτερο στάδιο, εξετάζουμε τη δημόσια υγεία στη Ρώμη και την κοινωνική ιατρική που αναπτύχθηκε στην όψιμη φάση της δημοκρατικής της περιόδου, όπως είναι η κατασκευή μεγάλων αποχετευτικών έργων (Cloaca Maxima, δημόσια λουτρά κ.α.) και τη διάθεση της πολιτείας να βελτιώσει τις συνθήκες ζωής των Ρωμαίων πολιτών, με τη θεσμοθέτηση οργάνων, καθώς και την εισαγωγή νομοθεσίας από τα δικαιοπλαστικά της όργανα, που σχετιζόταν με την ιατρική περίθαλψη. Τέλος, ακροθιγώς θα γίνει μια αναφορά στους σημαντικότερους ιατρούς και στις νευραλγικότερες ιατρικές εφευρέσεις της Ρωμαϊκής αρχαιότητας.

This is a revised version of my description of the *Antidotarium magnum*, a collection of over 1000 medical recipes produced at Monte Cassino by (or under the direction of) the Tunisian immigrant monk, Constantine the African (d. before 1098/1099). This is the first Latin work of pharmaceutics to incorporate the new materia medica of the Islamicate world. Unlike Constantine's other works (which were all translations of Arabic texts into Latin), the *Antidotarium magnum* seems to be a genuine effort to integrate traditional recipes from the Greek and Latin ancient and late antique traditions, with the newer approaches to pharmacy that Constantine brought to Italy from the other side of the Mediterranean. Included is a complete list of extant manuscripts, as well as a bibliography of studies published to date.

Reseña de la obra:

Jaime Coullaut Cordero y Concepción Vázquez de Benito (2017): El «Libro del árbol» de Ibn al-Kattānī. Un tratado médico andalusí. Salamanca: Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca; 124 pp. ISBN: 978-84-9012-684-4.

Aunque son muchas las obras médicas compuestas en al-Ándalus que han sido objeto de estudios científicos, pocas veces encontramos una edición de las características de El «Libro del árbol» de Ibn al-Kattānī. Su interés, además del inherente a una obra de un médico cordobés activo durante la época más esplendorosa de la ciencia árabe, reside en su originalidad, en tanto que se trata de una edición del único tratado médico de Ibn al-Kattānī que ha sobrevivido hasta nuestros días. De hecho, no encontramos otra bibliografía dedicada a la obra, lo que no es de extrañar, teniendo en cuenta que el manuscrito fuente se conoce desde hace menos de cincuenta años. Esta novedad demuestra que se trata de una edición pertinente en su campo y hace que nos resulte curioso que hasta hace pocas décadas la propia coautora de esta edición recogiera en un artículo suyo que el Kitāb al-šaǧara solo se conocía por dos citas de una obra de Ibn al-Ḫatīb (Vázquez de Benito, 1976: 468). Así, queda claro que este estudio es fruto del empeño investigador de Vázquez de Benito, que, junto a Coullaut Cordero, ha podido al fin culminar su interés por la obra de Ibn al-Kattānī en esta edición que actualiza el conocimiento sobre uno de los autores que dieron forma a la medicina y la farmacología andalusíes, herederas indiscutibles de la ciencia helenística conservada y traducida en el Oriente islámico.

Any reader of Tacitus' Annals may have noticed that poison
played a prominent part at the imperial court during the Early Principate. In this article the poisonings mentioned by Tacitus in his Annals 13-15 are analysed and commented upon in some detail. It is suggested that the poisoning of Britannicus was due to aconite (Aconitum). The use of poison in general is studied against the background of Roman society, culture and mentality. It is argued that modern ideas about physicians, pharmacists, poisons and drugs may induce anachronistic interpretations of the texts. If the ambiguous position of the doctor, the rootcutter, the drug-seller, the magician and of their products is taken into account,
some cases of poisoning prove to be much more equivocal than they seem at first sight. It is likely that they are the unintentional result of medical practice.

The Paracelsusian Influence on Ottoman Medicine in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.” (Bedizel Z Aydın ile) Transfer of Modern Science and Technology to the Muslim World. Proceedings of the International Symposium on “Modern Sciences and the Muslim World” (İstanbul, 2-4 September 1987). IRCICA, s. 157-179, İstanbul 1992.

MARIA DO SAMEIRO BARROSO

“AMBER: SOME PORTUGUESE ARTIFACTS AND RECIPES”

Abstract
Amber is rarely found among Portuguese artifacts and medicines possibly because it was imported and very expensive. The article focuses on the relationship between the some Portuguese objects and recipes with ancient and Roman amber routes, Classical mythology and costliest medicines: ingredient in recipes by the Portuguese Pope and Doctor, Peter of Spain (Lisbon 1215-1277), and in the Goa Stone, an artificial bezoar created by the Jesuit friar Gaspar António in the mid-seventeenth century.

Introduction: There are many pharmacists considered
among the artists who had a deep impact in the history of
art. However, it has been observed that the current literature
mostly deals with pharmacist–painters’ importance in terms
of the history of art, but it does not discuss them in terms of
the history of pharmacy in detail.
Material and Method: This retrospective study examines
the biographical resources written in German, English and
French languages about Carl Spitzweg (1808‒1885), John
White (1854‒1943), and Adrien Recouvreur (1858‒1944),
the famous pharmacist–painters born in the 19th century,
and it discusses how the pharmacy profession influenced
their artistic works.
Findings: Spitzweg was a German romanticist painter who
worked as a pharmacist’s apprentice between 1825 and
1828. Between 1830 and 1832, he furthered his studies in
the field of pharmacy at the University of Munich. However,
he quit the pharmacy profession in 1833, then fully devoted
his time to painting. Born in Bath, England, White trained
as a pharmacist in Bristol. In 1878, he immigrated to South
Australia, where he would set up pharmacies first in Kent
Town and then in Kadina and Port Lincoln. He quit the
pharmacy business in 1899 and spent the rest of his life
indulging in art and painting. French painter Recouvreur
was born in Commercy. After studying pharmacy in Nancy
and Reims, he qualified as a pharmacist in 1885. In the late
1890s, however, he quit pharmacy work in order to spend
more time in painting.
Discussion: Among the reasons that caused Spitzweg and
Recouvreur to quit the pharmacy profession and devote
their lives to painting might be the health problems they
suffered. While Spitzweg is the most celebrated pharmacist–
painter at an international level, White’s and Recouvreur’s
fames have remained limited within Australia and France,
respectively. Moreover, it is thought that the works of these
painters can be usefully employed in pharmacy curriculum.
Result: The chemical and botanical knowledge that Spitzweg,
White, and Recouvreur learned during their pharmacy
education greatly contributed to their success in the field of
painting.

Europäische Klöster waren vom 8. bis zum 12. Jahrhundert wesentlich für die medizinische Versorgung. Antike Schriften dienten als Vorbild und prägten das heilkundliche Wissen. Die Klostermedizin umfasst dabei eine medizingeschichtliche Epoche, die auf die Regula Benedicti des Heiligen Benedikt zurückgeht. Die Klöster entwickelten sich zum Ort medizinischer Versorgung. Die zentralen heilkundlichen Ansätze der Klostermedizin waren die Humoralpathologie und die vier Primärqualitäten. Abhängig von den Primärqualitäten einer Erkrankung setzt man in der Klostermedizin Heilpflanzen mit jeweils gegenteiligen Qualitäten zur Behandlung ein.

Before the regulation of opium as a “narcotic” in Sweden in 1923, opium was not regulated for its intoxicating properties and was freely available. But not in any kind of shop. Opium was legally available only through the pharmacies. This thesis explores how this free availability of a narcotic was understood by its traders, the pharmacists.

The title of this thesis indicates how opium could be conceptualized as a safe, everyday remedy essential to keep freely available and at the same time as a potent drug of intoxication. As a "poison" it could be articulated as a matter of primarily pharmacological – not moral or medical – concern. This also gave the pharmacists, with their special knowledge of pharmaca (drugs, poisons), an autonomous space of knowledge free from the ever more intruding “medical gaze”. But, in order to articulate this kind of understanding of opium, another kind of knowledge was needed to be acknowledged: that of the user. In this articulation a “sensus communis” was tied in with a broader cultural knowledge of drugs. Problems with opium were focused on the danger of acute poisoning, not recreational intoxication. Concepts that could have problematized this kind of use were rearticulated as problems either of illegitimate trade, unregulated markets and advertising or of draconian regulation by greedy or sloppy doctors. These rather opposite problematic elements were made equivalent through the articulation of ignorance in both cases, thus further emphasizing the value of the pharmacist special knowledge of poisons.
The thesis locates a process of contradiction that contributes to the eventual diminishing of the discourse of poison towards the end of the period. The pharmaceutical knowledge that guaranteed the discourse was based on a “pharmaceutical gaze” on pharmaca. It pierced through the drug to identify its constituent parts. In this process it was promised that the different effects of opium would be separated. “Narcotic” could be a by-product, to be discarded or controlled, without dispensing of other therapeutic effects. With this ever deeper knowledge of opium, knowledge in the pharmacies was made insufficient for the full understanding or opium, and so too was that of the traditional user. The era of opium as a poison was over.

Son muchos los fondos documentales relativos a la Historia de la Ciencia, en general y en particular a la Historia de la Medicina y la Farmacia, que se encuentran inéditos en Archivos españoles. La Cátedra de Historia de la Farmacia y Legislación farmacéutica de la Universidad de Granada, inició en los años setenta un ambicioso proyecto de investigación para facilitar y promover los estudios sobre la historia de la ciencia, la medicina y particularmente de la farmacia. El equipo de investigadores no pretendía sólo realizar trabajos y Monografías personales, sino sobre todo promover y facilitar la investigación a otros, en los más diversos campos. La ayuda prestada por el personal de los archivos ha sido también valiosa y debe ser reconocida
El objetivo primario fue facilitar la investigación de la historia de la ciencia, en nuestro país, al mismo tiempo que se llamaba  la atención sobre la riqueza de los  fondos archivísticos, en estos campos.
La presente aportación  es la "Colección documental de interés histórico-farmacéutico conservados en el archivo General de Navarra". Este trabajo fué premiado, en concurso, por el Colegio de Farmacéuticos de Navarra.
Para hacer una historia es necesario disponer de fuentes adecuadas. Después vendrá el estudio, valoración e interpretación de las mismas, pero antes de nada se hace necesario una localización y catalogación de fuentes disponibles.
Dada la situación de los estudios históricos realizados sobre el pasado médico-farmacéutico en Navarra, se impone, ante todo, una labor de recapitulación y de señalización y apertura de posibles vías de investigación.
Se da a conocer abundante material documental, que abren la vía para la reconstrucción y vivificación de muchas parcelas del pasado farmacéutico en Navarra. Pero la materia no está agotada ni mucho menos. Los distintos Archivos de Pamplona, y de Navarra en general, conservan aún importantes colecciones documentales de interés histórico farmacéutico. Y esta aportación debe ser estímulo para emprender nuevas investigaciones.
Para la realización del trabajo se encontró una gran ayuda  en la "Guía del Archivo General de Navarra"  de José M. Lacarra.
De toda la documentación recogida se indica un resumen de su contenido general y fecha, junto con las siglas de localización archivística. Se han clasificado numéricamente y subdividido
siguiendo las distintas secciones del Archivo a que pertenecen.
Pero un trabajo como éste que tiende a orientar y facilitar la labor de futuros investigadores no cumpliría bien con su papel si careciese de unos índices de consulta. Estos índices son pieza fundamental del trabajo. Se ha agrupado en un sólo índice general el de materias, el topográfico y el onomástico. La sola ojeada del índice da una visión bastante precisa de los alcances y riqueza de la documentación catalogada que puede sustituir bien a cualquier comentario.
El lapso cronológico a que se extiende la documentación que va desde 1344 hasta muy entrado el siglo XIX, es otro factor más a considerar.
Por último, es de destacar que se  acompaña la reproducción de algunos documentos como ilustración. de la importancia de la documentación presentada.
Una buena parte de la documentación recopilada corresponde a la Alta Edad Media y, por regla general, son bastante escuetos por ser fundamentalmente cédulas reales ordenando pagos, y que se refieren a gastos de la Casa Real. En las cédulas suele especificarse el motivo y circunstancias del pago, por lo que a través de ellas puede seguirse no sólo la vida económica del reino, sino la política y cultural.
Físicos, Cirujanos, Especieros y Apoticarios son los personajes de nuestra acción.
¿En este periodo qué competencias tiene cada uno? ¿Cuales son sus misiones? Físicos y Cirujanos preparan y aplican por sí medicamentos. Los sueldos de los médicos, las gracias que recibían, las cuentas por medicinas y confiterías y los datos de la vida política, económica y sanitaria del reino es un panel imprescindible.
Otro gran capítulo lo constituyen los documentos relativos a la profesión farmacéutica en Navarra en los siglos XVI,XVII,XVIII y XIX.
Esta masa documental es bastante amplia y completa y consideramos de un interés fundamental. A través de ellos se puede perfilar la profesión farmacéutica en Navarra en los siglos XVI, XVII, XVIII y XIX con sus glorias y penurias y toda la serie de encuentros con los médicos por un lado, el Protomédico por otro y las mismas cofradías de médicos, cirujanos y boticarios.
El papel desempeñado por las Cortes en la evolución de la profesión farnacéutica y la opinión de la sociedad sobre el ejercicio profesional farmacéutico así como la enseñanza y visitas de boticas tienen una amplia información en este conjunto documental.
Otro bloque importante de documentos se refieren a expedientes de exámenes de Boticarios. Es otro conjunto documental de un marcado interés_ Es, tal vez, una de las colecciones de expedientes de farmacéuticos más amplia que se conservan. Se extiende prácticamente
a todo el siglo XVIII. Asimismo, se conservan un buen número del siglo XIX, pero que en este trabajo, no no se han catalogado, dejándose indicado esta vía de investigación.
Entre los documentos más relevantes transcritos están las  Ordenanzas del Conseio Real del Reyno de Navarra.  Lo relativo al  Protomédico y de su jurisdicción y de las apelaciones de sus sentencias, que es un capítulo esencial para la historia de Navarra así como lo relativo a la organización y funciones de "De los médicos, cirujanos y boticarios" •. Añadiendo  las  "Ordenanzas de los médicos, boticarios, cirujanos y barberos de la ciudad de Estella". Documento del máximo interés. Así como el "Proyecto de Ordenanzas para el régimen y gobierno de la Facultad de Farmacia del Reino de Navarra". Así como la gran masa documental relativa al Hospital General de Nuestra Señora de la Misericordia de la Ciudad de Pamplona.
Todo ello como muestra y estímulo para profundizar y ampliar nuevas investigaciones en los Archivos del reino de Navarra.

Im Jahre 1869 notiert der Journalist Julius Eckardt: " Man kann das russische Reich vom Peipus-See bis zum Ochozkischen Meerbusen, vom Tiflis bis an die eisigen Gefilde Achangels durchstreifen, in jeder Stadt von einiger Bedeutung wird man wenigstens einen deutschen Arzt und einen deutschen Apotheker finden, […] "

In the collections of Norsk Farmasihistorisk Museum, Oslo, Norway, we find a roof from Svaneapoteket, Larvik, made in 1907.
The roof shows a lot of individuals from The History of Pharmacy and among them the saints Cosmas and Damian.
The saints are rare in Scandinavia, but common in southern Europe where pictures and statues are to be found in pharmacies and churches.
The saints Cosmas and Damian are regarded as the patrons of physicians and pharmacists and are sometimes represented with medical emblems.
According to tradition he saints received a Christian education from their mother and the Holy Spirit taught them to heal people and animals.

Статья посвящена истории использования труда «помясов» (служащих дворцовых приказов) в качестве травников (сборщиков лекарственных растений) в 1-ой половине XVII века. Приведены особенности употребления терминов «травник» и «помяс». В статье рассматриваются проблемы взаимодействия Аптекарского приказа с дворцовым ведомством:  особенности организации снабжения  приказа лекарственным растительным сырьем, необходимого для производства аптечных препаратов.
The article is devoted to the history of application of pomyas’ labour (people who served in Tsar’s Household chanceries) as herbalist (people who gather herbs) in the 1st half of the seventeenth century.  The features which distinguish the difference between the meaning of pomyas and herbalist are introduced. The coordination problems, related to supply of raw materials for manufacturing of medical products, between Apothecary Chancery and the Household departments – are examined in the paper.

Byzantine medicine remains a little known and misrepresented field not only in the context of debates on medieval medicine, but also among Byzantinists themselves. It is often viewed as 'stagnant' and mainly preserving ancient ideas, and our knowledge of it continues to be based to a great extent on the comments of earlier authorities, which are often repeated uncritically.

This volume presents the first comprehensive examination of the medical corpus of, arguably, the most important Late Byzantine physician: John Zacharias Aktouarios (c.1275-c.1330). Its main thesis is that John's medical works show an astonishing degree of openness to knowledge from outside Byzantium combined with a significant degree of originality, in particular, in the fields of uroscopy and human physiology. The analysis of John's edited (On Urines and On Psychic Pneuma) and unedited (Medical Epitome) treatises is supported for the first time by the consultation of a large number of manuscripts, and is also informed by evidence from a wide range of medical sources, including those previously unpublished, and texts from other genres, such as epistolography and merchants' accounts. The contextualization of John's corpus sheds new light on the development of Byzantine medical thought and practice, and enhances our understanding of the Late Byzantine social and intellectual landscape. Through examination of his medical observations in the light of examples from the medieval Latin and Islamic worlds, his theories are also placed within the wider Mediterranean milieu, highlighting the cultural exchange between Byzantium and its neighbours.