Literary Criticism

L'édition des fragments et témoignages de Caecilius de Calè-Actè constitue le troisième moment d’une recherche consacrée à la théorie rhétorique grecque des périodes hellénistique et post-hellénistique, qui a été initiée avec les éditions d’Hermagoras de Temnos (fl. 150/130 av. J.-C.), et d’Apollodore de Pergame (120 av. J.-C. – ca. 40 av. J.-C.) et Théodore de Gadara (né à la fin des années 70 av. J.-C.), parues respectivement en 2010 et 2013 aux éditions de la Collection des Université de France.
D’origine sicilienne, Caecilius est un rhéteur grec, contemporain — et peut-être ami ? — de Denys d’Halicarnasse, et qui doit notamment sa renommée à la rédaction d’un traité sur les figures dont l’influence fut, dans l’histoire de la rhétorique, profonde et durable. Son nom est aussi rattaché à l’histoire du Canon des dix orateurs attiques, au développement de la notion de « sublime » et à la polémique anti-asianiste qui agite les mondes grec et romain au ier s. avant J.-C. Pourtant, la place exacte que Caecilius tient dans ces controverses est loin d’être évidente ni même assurée, et les études qui ont été consacrées à ces questions ont attribué au rhéteur des rôles divers, quelquefois contradictoires. Les divergences qui caractérisent ces travaux sont en partie assignables à l’hétérogénéité des corpus sur lequels elles reposent. Comme pour tous les autres rhéteurs grecs de cette période (mis à part Denys d’Halicarnasse), on ne dispose en effet sur Caecilius que de sources minces et lacunaires, constituées essentiellement de témoignages — dans le meilleur des cas, de fragments — tirés d’auteurs postérieurs. En outre, les éditions qui tentent de reconstituer ce qui aurait été la doctrine authentique du rhéteur de Calè-Actè ne prennent pas toujours en compte les mêmes sources.
Cette édition, qui repose sur les mêmes principes qui ont été adoptés dans les éditions des Fragments et Témoignages d’Hermagoras, et d’Apollodore de Pergame et Théodore de Gadara, se divise en deux parties distinctes : l’une rassemble les fragments et témoignages que l’on peut rapporter à Caecilius, tandis que l’autre — qui se réduit au long texte de l’Ineditum Vaticanum, mentionnant en titre le nom d’un Caecilius qui en serait l’auteur — est un fragment qui n’est pas authentique.
Les témoignages ont été traduits de façon à respecter au maximum l’usage des termes techniques qui se retrouvent d’un témoignage à l’autre, quels qu’en soient les auteurs ou les langues dans lesquelles il a été conservé. Un lexique final réunit les principaux termes mentionnés dans les Fragments et témoignages, ainsi que les équivalences, quand elles sont attestées par les textes, entre les notions grecques et latines : il permettra de travailler avec précision sur le lexique grec de la technique rhétorique et de la critique à l’âge hellénistique et post-hellénistique de mettre à jour ses correspondances dans la langue latine, afin de mieux déceler les innovations tant dans le domaine conceptuel que le domaine purement lexical.

The subject of semiotics is not to answer the questions such as what does the text says, who says the text, or what are the possible external— societal, individual, and historical—effects on the text. Instead, it is mainly interested in how signs are created, how they are articulated with each other to create the meaning in the text, and in what ways the meaning is created in different semantic layers within its system. The study necessitates focusing on the relations of the formative elements in the text which leads us to reach the narrative syntax that makes it possible to observe the underlying structures in different semantic strata of the text. Moreover, the approach helps us to analyze the meaning production process, as well as to observe the ways of the articulation process of meaningful items with each other to create the whole text.  The main purpose of this study is to figure out the semantic organization of George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four narrative within the scope of Greimas's semiotic trajectory.

Storytelling pervades almost every aspect of the law. Many narrativistic legal elements, however, have in fact been little more than historically transitory. Given the precarious status of narrative at law, I argue we should focus instead on one of the most historically consistent acts of legal storytelling: the judicial opinion. Here I examine in particular the invocation of precedent in legal opinions, what I call “judicial emplotment,” as an almost archetypal act of formalized storytelling. As I go on to argue, the courts justify legal outcomes by invoking precedent, thereby placing decisions within a specific and heavily formalized legal-narrative structure.

For all the debate in the contemporary humanities about the canon, there is little interdisciplinary dialogue on the issue, nor even meaningful input from the perspective of academic biblical studies, the one discipline that specializes in the formation and interpretation of the canon. Seeking to provide such a perspective, this article shows how cultures having a tradition of prestigious or authoritative texts address the problem of literary and legal innovation. Engaging the work of Jonathan Z. Smith on exegetical ingenuity, the study begins with cuneiform law, and then shows how ancient Israel's development of the idea of divine revelation of law creates a cluster of constraints that would be expected to impede legal revision or amendment. As a test-case, the article examines the idea that God punishes sinners transgenerationally, vicariously extending the punishment due them to three or four generations of their progeny. A series of inner-biblical and post-biblical responses to the rule demonstrates, however, that later writers were able to criticize, reject, and replace it with the alternative notion of individual retribution. The conclusions stress the extent to which the formative canon sponsors this kind of critical reflection and intellectual freedom.

Este ensaio pretende reavaliar a crítica de Machado de Assis a O Primo Basílio, de Eça de Queirós. Nesta releitura, o ano de 1878 é considerado crucial na internacionalização do sistema literário lusófono. Assim, propõe-se a releitura da dura crítica de Machado ao romance de Eça a partir dessa premissa. A consequência principal da crítica machadiana teria sido o resgate, deliberadamente anacrônico, da técnica clássica da aemulatio, reinventada sob a forma de uma "poética da emulação".

For more than a decade, criticisms levied against Muslims and Islam in Western European countries such as France and the Netherlands have been shielded under the auspices of a call for increased security and a desire to protect liberal secularism. An example of this can be found in the recent move by the Dutch cabinet to implement legislation to ban the burqa in public places such as schools, hospitals, government buildings, and public transportation. The proposed Dutch ban follows the French parliament who implemented similar legislation in 2011 restricting the presence of discernible religious symbols such as burqas and niqabs from the public sphere. In a statement to the press, Prime Minister Mark Rutte, explains the proposed ban " had nothing to do with religion, " but rather it is intended to help facilitate " recognizable communication " (qtd. in " Netherlands Plans "). He clarifies " In a free country like the Netherlands, everyone has the right to dress how they choose, no matter what others think. That freedom is only limited in situations when it is essential for people to look at each other " (qtd. in " Netherlands Plans "). In this statement the restrictions placed on full face-veils are steeped in concerns of contemporary cultural conflict, inflamed by language that claims that Muslim immigrants to the Netherlands need to be better integrated. In France and the Netherlands, full face-veils have become symbols of " religious extremism " that are actively legislated against. As such they are tied to a series of judgments and evaluations that situate them as objectionable cultural objects and indicative of problematic immigrant groups. Defined as " extremist " or " politically dangerous " this vision of full face-veils is based on normative conceptions of the subject. When considered in relation to the secular, violence is done to those who are visibly different, marked by religious symbols that are understood through binaries such as objectionable/unobjectionable, Western/Eastern, Islamic/Christian, religious/secular further problematizing them. These schisms have intensified in the aftermath of 9/11 and the global war on terror creating a rift between secular and religious worldviews. There is no greater symbolic target of this schism between the secular and the religious than the burqa. The polarization of these two groups, secular and religious has gained further strength when they are posited in relation to the nation state. Within this context secularism is invoked as that which protects the state, defines it, and transforms practices related to public and private life via institutions. This paper explores the invocation of normative dispositions of secularism and security in light of the increasing restrictions placed against Muslim women in the public sphere in France and the Netherlands within dominant discourse. Drawing from the draw work of Saba Mahmood, Judith Butler, and Talal Asad I explore how bodies are marked as " different " within public spaces, through a discussion of the schism between the secular/religious. Such an examination is significant as these legislations are some of the most prohibitive in the West.

Resumen. El fenómeno Booktube se configu-ra en un claro ejemplo de la cultura parti-cipativa, donde los usuarios toman las rien-das de los medios para aportar sus propias ideas, en este caso referidas a la literatura. En este trabajo se analiza el carácter que toman las producciones audiovisuales de los booktubers, intentando dilucidar si se trata de un fenómeno fandom que además puede ser evaluado como crítica literaria. Tras revisar algunas ideas en torno a la crí-tica, estaríamos dentro de la categoría en la que Edward W. Said incluye a las reseñas de libros o al periodismo literario, aunque teniendo en cuenta su carácter amateur. También se resalta el que se opte por for-mas de literatura que no forman parte del canon central del sistema cultural, lo que dota de una gran originalidad a la selección de los títulos propuestos. Dada la impronta entre el público juvenil, se recomienda em-prender estudios que aborden la eficacia de este tipo de prácticas en la promoción de la lectura, especialmente en el ámbito universitario. Palabras clave: Booktube; crítica literaria; redes sociales; participación cultural; promoción de la lectura. Abstract. The booktube phenomenon is configured as a clear example of partici-patory culture, where users take control of media offering their own ideas, in this case referred to literature. This article discusses the character of audiovisual productions created by booktubers. Additionally, it tries to resolve if these cases are a fandom phenomenon that also can be considered as literary criticism. After reviewing some ideas towards the criticism, these videos are found to be in the category established by Edward W. Said composed by reviews and literary journalism, although taking into account their amateur nature. Also, it is remarked that the booktubers selection of literary forms do not take part in the central canon of the cultural system. This situation provides the selection of the titles with a great originality. Because of the importance of Booktube among the young audience of readers, new research is recommended in this area for reading promotion , especially at the university level.

NEW BOOK SERIES: Maritime Literature and Culture offers alternative rubrics for literary and cultural studies to those of nation, continent and area, which inter-articulate with current debates on comparative and world literatures, globalization and planetary or Anthropocene thought in illuminating ways. The humanities have paid increasing attention to oceans, islands and shores as sites of cultural production, while the maritime imagination in contemporary literatures and other cultural forms has presented ways of responding to human migration, global neoliberalism and climate change. This series provides a forum for discussion of these and other maritime expressions, including enquiries that engage maritime and coastal zones as spaces that enable reflection on labour and leisure; racial terror and performances of freedom; environmental wonder and degradation; metaphor and materiality; and the various implications of globe, world and planet.

Il saggio del 2010 ricostruisce la vicenda editoriale e letteraria di  "Malacqua" di Nicola Pugliese (Einaudi, 1977 - Pironti, 2013),  romanzo in cui Compagnone vide la "Non-Storia" di Napoli. Ovvero la vicenda di una città per scelta anarchica ed ingovernabile, che obbedisce agli istinti della Natura (come altri "Sud del mondo", come il Sudamerica di Garcia Marquez). Ma la grandezza del romanzo è forse quella di riuscire a fare di Napoli una metafora di qualcosa di ben più grande: dello stato della condizione umana: fragile e provvisoria, eppure l'unica possibile; incupita dal proprio inevitabile destino, che è la morte; ma anche con momenti di straziante bellezza e dolcezza.

La critica letteraria è una materia in cui “parole e cose” sono strettamente intrecciate le une alle altre, e in cui tra i componenti materiali dei testi e le categorie che li classificano esiste un intricato rapporto di individuazione reciproca: non c’è termine, nel lessico della teoria letteraria, che non sia nato da un dato testuale, un caso particolare che ne ha influenzato natura e confini con le proprie caratteristiche specifiche, e allo stesso tempo non si dà dato testuale che possa essere identificato come tale in mancanza di una categoria che gli preesiste, di uno spazio teorico che lo fa esistere in quanto oggetto e ne garantisce la riconoscibilità. Partendo da questo doppio presupposto, questo libro si offre come strumento di partenza per lo studio della narrativa, occasione per riepilogare i concetti fondamentali della critica riportandoli – per quanto possibile – ai loro contesti di origine, così da coniugare nozione ed evoluzione, significato e storia.

This paper uses Plato and Aristotle's concept of censorhip in discussing the novel titled The Last Duty by Isidore Okpewho. The novel upon reading has explicit profane expressions and other immoral acts which do not help in nurturing of an African Child and thus go contrary to the concept of censorship propounded by Plato and Aristotle. The author therefore uses this concept of Censorship developed by Plato and Aristotle as a guide for the youth in reading of the novel.

Eighteenth-century Britain saw the emergence of a new poetic genre, the “work” poem which took various forms of labor as its subject and was often written by laborers themselves. Several of these working class poets found their lives transformed due to the success of their verse (Stephen Duck most famously), but most faded into literary obscurity. However, a substantial body of “work” poems was produced by a diverse group of poets throughout the century, each manifesting divergent concerns and attitudes about the experience of work. This chapter assesses the formal connections uniting this poetic genre, particularly the frequent use of such literary devices as ironic distancing, litotes, and mock-georgic description. Instead of solely classifying “work” poems on the basis of their subject matter, this chapter demonstrates that such poetry (indeed the genre itself) lends itself to sophisticated literary techniques often associated with other poetic genres. In this fashion the full measure of eighteenth-century working class poetry can be evaluated more fairly, particularly by analyzing the formation of a new genre designed expressly by the poets themselves. The chapter ultimately seeks to demonstrate the connectedness, rather than the alienation, of working class poetry to the eighteenth-century British poetic tradition.

We live in an age of movement. More than at any other time in history , people and things move longer distances, more frequently, and faster than ever before. All that was solid melted into air long ago and is now in full circulation around the world like dandelion seeds adrift on turbulent winds. We find ourselves, in the early twenty-first century, in a world where every major domain of human activity has become increasingly defined by motion. 1 We have entered a new historical era defined in large part by movement and mobility and are now in need of a new historical on-tology appropriate to our time. The observation that the end of the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty-first was marked by an increasingly " liquid " and " mobile modernity " is now something widely recognized in the scholarly literature at the turn of the century. 2 Today, however, our orientation to this event is quite different. Almost twenty years into the twenty-first century we now find ourselves situated on the other side of this heralded transition. The question that confronts us today is thus a new one: how to fold all that has melted back up into new solids. 3

Ancient Greek poetess Sappho is widely regarded as the oldest known lesbian and feminist in the Western literary history. However, this common notion represents just one in the millennia-long series of reinventions of her persona, since before the fin de siècle her heterosexuality was viewed as an almost indisputable truth. This paper
argues that, throughout the history, the reception of Sappho’s poetry was inevitably faced with the question of her sexuality, which was addressed in very divergent ways. It first uses the theoretical concepts of “Trojan horse” and “compulsory heterosexuality” as outlined by feminist critics Monique Wittig and Adrienne Rich to demonstrate that (homo)erotic sentimentality of Sappho’s magnificent poems produced a moral complex in Western heteropatriarchal societies, which sought to tame and reclaim that poetry by heterosexualizing it. The paper then turns to a diachronic analysis of various discursive strategies of heterosexualization within the Western literary and philological discourses from antiquity to modernity and contrasts them with the contemporary discourse of homosexualization, thus showing that the reception of Sappho’s poetry can be conceptualized as an ideological battle between traditional epistemological regime of compulsory heterosexuality on the one hand and modern political aspiration for women’s and lesbian emancipation, on the other hand. Finally, the article illustrates how contemporary philological and historical research on Sappho, in an attempt to escape that ideological battle, unconsciously falls victim to this millennia-long misogyny.

We are pleased to announce that submissions are now open for LEA 11 (2022).
CfP: Conflict and contrast in language and literature

LEA also accepts contributions that are not related to the topic proposed in the CfP: for more information, please visit our website:
https://oajournals.fupress.net/index.php/bsfm-lea

Suspendus aux lèvres d’un conteur, incapables d’interrompre la lecture d’un roman, captivés par un film haletant, nous faisons tous l’expérience quotidienne de ce plaisir apparemment paradoxal que nous tirons de notre insatisfaction provisoire face à un récit inachevé. Bien qu’une mode esthétique et théorique ait tenté de nous convaincre que ce plaisir était honteux, on peut néanmoins avoir l’intuition que le cœur vivant de la narrativité réside précisément dans ce nœud coulant, toujours plus serré à mesure que nous progressons dans l’histoire, qui nous attache à l’intrigue et creuse la temporalité par l’attente impatiente d’un dénouement. Si le récit a quelque chose à voir avec la manière dont nous éprouvons le temps, cette expérience n’apparaît jamais avec autant d’éclat que dans le suspense, la curiosité ou la surprise qui font la force des intrigues fictionnelles. La compréhension des fonctions narratives engage donc non seulement l’analyse littéraire, linguistique et sémiotique, mais aussi l’analyse cognitive et la psychologie des émotions.

This essay presents the positivist perception of the prophetic biography (sīra) and early Islamic historiography as capable of yielding hard historical data against the background of skeptical approaches to the Islamic literary sources and compares it with external literary, epigraphic, and numismatic evidence. The essay calls for a systematic use of modern-day classifying categories, such as ‘myth’, ‘legend’, and ‘saga,’ which can be epistemologically misleading, if applied on sīra traditions in an undisciplined manner. At the end of the essay, I have attached my translation into Arabic of its part “Sīra and Poetry”.

Keywords: sira, prophetic biography, myth, legend, Geistesbeschäftigung, salvation history, isnad-cum-matn analysis, fictionalization, epigraphic evidence, numismatic evidence.
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أقارن في هذا المقال بين النظرة الإيجابية في السيرة النبوية والمصادر التاريخية المبكرة، وهي نظرة قائبة بأنّه من شأن هذه المؤلفات توفير المعلومات التاريخية الثابتة، من جهة، وبين النظرة الارتيابية في المصادر ذاتها، من جهة أخرى، مستنجدا بالقرائن الخارجية من الأدبية والنقشية والنُّمِّية. كما أني أدعو إلى الاستعمال المنضبط لمفاهيم التصنيف الأدبي كـ"الميث" و"الأسطورة" و"الساغا" التي قد تؤدي الى متاهة منهجية حالَ تطبيقها العشوائي بالنسبة للسيرة النبوية. وفي نهاية المقال يجد القارئ ترجمتي إلى اللغة العربية للفصل "السيرة والشعر".

Revolution as a phenomenon is considered as a way to a complete change of a situation or system of government to a better one. Is revolution really the right way to fulfil our dreams and have a better way of life? Or is it simply just changing the face of rulers or the name of the governments? Many writers and novelists have written about this issue. George Orwell, who is considered as a political writer, is one of them. He wrote many novels. Animal Farm, as one of them, is an allegorical story of some animals on a farm. They begin a revolution against the humans with the dream of getting rid of Man as the root cause of their problems, and to be rich and free. They have a short period of honeymoon revolution, but then their dream of building a utopian farm is crashed by the pigs and they would find themselves in dystopia. This paper aims to study the nature of revolution generally to shed light on human history, Then to explore how this phenomenon is treated by Orwell in his novel. Can we consider revolution as a right way to have a complete change in the political system and thinking of people? The researchers try to illuminate and find answers for those questions by providing examples from the story of Animal Farm.

In this wide-ranging survey Joseph Bristow introduces readers to the most influential contemporary theories of sexual desire. Revealing how nineteenth-century scientists invented 'sexuality', he investigates why this term has been the source of such controversy in modern culture. Demonstrating the lasting influence of late-Victorian sexology, Sexu-ality turns a critical eye on many conflicting accounts of eroticism. Bristow shows why Freud and Lacan have been widely discussed within the fields of cultural studies, literary history and feminist theory. He explains the importance of Bataille, Baudrillard, Cixous, Deleuze, Irigaray and Kristeva, among many others. Analysing the work of Michel Foucault, Bristow considers how The History of Sexuality paved the way for queer theory in the 1990s. The conclusion looks at the decisive postmodern emphasis on erotic diversity. Presented in a clear and concise style, Sexuality makes complex theoretical ideas accessible to readers who wish to discover more about this exciting and rapidly developing field.

Kratka sodobna pravljica z naslovom Lipko in Košorok je izšla v slikaniški knjižni obliki leta 2013, v povezavi knjige in Evropskega prvenstva v košarki, ki se je istega leta odvijalo v Ljubljani, kar je premočrten primer razvijanja promocijskih strategij v neoliberalizmu. Kratka sodobna pravljica je bila celo izbrana na razpisu Pravljica o Lipku, ki ga je razpisalo Društvo slovenskih založnikov v sodelovanju z Javno agencijo za knjigo. Ta dejstva niso zanemarljiva, ker podpirajo hipotezo o nadpovprečni promociji podpovprečnega besedila. Slikanica je eden najizrazitejših primerov, ko literarnosistemski dejavniki, kot so dostopnost, podpora določenih ustanov (knjigarne, knjižnice, šole ipd.) in trg (promocija, povezovanje z aktualnim športom) pripišejo avtorju in besedilu atribute, ki jih, žal, nimata.

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Сучасна література Великої Британії дає підстави говорити про те, що важливим компонентом романного дискурсу є настанова на реалістичність. Традиції історизму та побутописання в англійській літературі спричинилися до того, що навіть у постмодерністський період ця література не поривала з реалістичними тенденціями, які доцільно схарактеризувати як неореалізм. Натомість дискурс постпостмодернізму спонукає до осмислення проблеми постреалізму в сучасному англійському романі. Постреалізм характеризується зображенням художньої реальності як такої, що у певний спосіб постає продовженням (критичним, полемічним) справжньої дійсності. Романний дискурс відображає ключові політичні й геополітичні проблеми сьогодення, постає спробою художньої ревізії соціальних проблем тощо. Персонажі постпостмодерністських англійських романів М. Еміса, М. Дреббл, І. Мак'юена, М. Геддона та ін. існують у реальності, яка нагадує дійсність реципієнтів; у такому разі художній світ може бути репрезентований як форма критики навколишньої дійсності. Дослідники літератури Великої Британії (М. Бредбері, В. Генієва) наголошують на тому, що «традиційно англо-ірландська проза тяжіє до двох видів оповіді: побутової, або звичаєописувальної, та історичної» (Genieva, 1988, p. 4). Крім того, однією з особливостей прози є «драматургічна організація оповіді» (Genieva, 1988, p. 6). «Напружений психологізм, вичерпна, точна деталь, що передає важливе не лише для особистості, а й для суспільства, оркестрування п'єси, насиченість тексту різноманітними алюзіями, цитатами, уміння передати матеріальне, осяжне життя, звуки, запахи, відчуття-усе це свідчить про творче засвоєння традиції Джеймса Джойса» (Genieva, 1988, p. 6),-зазначає В. Генієва. Дослідниця аплікує зазначені риси до романів «Чи далеко до Вавилона?» та «Старий жарт» ірландської письменниці Дженніфер Джонстон, проте вони стосуються також і англійського роману др. пол. ХХ-поч. ХХІ ст. У романах Дж. Джонстон тема ірландсько-англійського протистояння набуває особливого увиразнення, позначаючись та тому, що зазначені твори є важливим матеріалом для розуміння не лише ірландської, а й англійської ідентичності, соціально-політичного протистояння між Лондоном і Дубліном тощо. Письменниця розкриває історичні колізії між Ірландією та Англією в різні культурно-історичні періоди, вдаючись до творення імаґологічних авто-й гетерообразів. Англійському роману як ХХ, так і ХХІ ст. притаманна увага до розкриття побутових аспектів життя, причому репрезентація цієї теми відбувається як на рівні особистісному, так і соціальному, де важливо розкрити причини соціальних конфліктів. Представлення в романах таких тем, як «осяжне життя, звуки, запахи, відчуття» в постпостмодерністському наративі здобуває інакші форми експлікації. Йдеться про те, що тепер важливі не самі феномени «осяжного життя», а чинники, які детермінують їх появу і сприйняття. Властива англійському роману ХХ ст. «напружена психологізація» у постпостмодернізмі стає ключовою темою, для зображення якої важливо з'ясувати з психологічної точки зору те, чим є зовнішній світ для індивіда, у який спосіб відбувається психологізація реальності на рівні нейронних і соматичних процесів. Постпостмодерністський роман розвиває якісні параметри тем, які, за В. Генієвою, належать до базових параметрів англійського романного мислення. Водночас у ньому збережено «побутову» та «історичну» лінії оповіді, які, щоправда, у постпостмодернізмі перебувають у нелінійних зв'язках.

TRANSLATION, NOVEL AND CULTURE
This book tries to study the relation among narratology, traductology and cultural studies through the example of the translation and the reception of certain Turkish novels in Spain and consists in three major parts. The first (Traductology and Narratology) tries to investigate from a theoretical point of view the relationship between those two disciplines mainly through the studies of Kitty van Leuven-Zwart and Shoshana Blum-Kulka. We consider narratives as a form of discourse and, from that point, we try to found common grounds between both disciplines beyond the stylistic level according to the grammar of the text. Perhaps the most important of these points are the shifts in cohesion and coherence (specially the latter if we think cohesion as a part of coherence). In translation there are always shifts in the coherence of the text and in narrative texts the most important of those are the shifts in cultural aspects due to the implications (the non-said).
These implications are a natural form in the discourse, perfectly understandable to a native speaker. The author of the original assumes that they are understood by the reader, but in the case of translations this is not usually so. Being a product of the culture, the real meaning of the implications may go down to very deep levels and it is the mission of the translator to make them understandable for the reader of the other language.
The cultural implications may come from two sources: the first is what we all consider culture, i.e. education, and the other is our social (and cultural) background in a very broad sense. In the first case, one of the most important things for the authors of narratives is their literary tradition. Here begins the second part of the book where we investigate the literary background of the writers under study in this book (Yaşar Kemal and Orhan Pamuk) trying to demonstrate that it goes beyond the mere Turkish tradition thanks to the crucial role of translations in their own culture. After this, we examine what kind of critical reception these authors have in Spain to discover that it is usually full of cultural prejudices.
This is the main point that distances these Turkish authors from the Spanish reader: cultural prejudices. So, though our cultures are not too different at certain levels, there must be something that makes us, as Spanish readers, see the Turks as poles apart. In the third part of the study (Definition of Culture) we can see that we are not as dissimilar as might be expected and so the Spanish reader can easily understand the cultural implications in Turkish novels, provided that the translator (and most of all the text itself) is able to awaken the reader’s interest for such knowledge and the reader is willing to give it his attention.