Ottoman History

The previously unpublished field diaries of the principal leaders involved in the first season of the Harvard Expedition to Samaria are held by the University's Semitic Museum. The narrative they contain sheds light on the organization and archaeological techniques applied at the site and gives some context to the much acclaimed final publication of the excavations (Reisner, Fisher & Lyon, 1924).

Barukh Mitrani was an Ottoman maskil who wandered between the Balkans, Istanbul and Palestine. While living in Edirne, Mitrani established his first periodical, Carmi (Pressburg 1881). Carmi's issues were an ongoing maskilic sermon, drawing on a deep acquaintance with the Jewish bookshelf. This paper examines selections from the fifth article in Carmi, 'Our Nationhood.' Influenced by the moderate Haskalah, Mitrani idealized a 'Golden Mean,' which sought to balance the agendas of 'the two poles': insular Ultra-Orthodox Jews on the one hand, and secularized 'Westernizers' on the other. Mitrani also espoused a Jewish nationalism which had affinities with the Hebrew 'republic of letters' and the national resurgence in the Balkans. He perceived every Jew as part of three circles: the individual, the family, and the nation. Yet his nationalism was not separatist; he obliged Jews to remain loyal Ottoman citizens and promote the Sultanate while also settling in Palestine.

The location of the city of al-Ludd, between the lowlands and the coastal plain, made it an attractive settlement site through the ages. This location brought with it, on the one hand, a fertile catchment area and on the other, caravans looking for a safe inland route. The last settlement phase that resulted in the medieval town was extant until the mid-twentieth century, whence it was demolished leaving only a dozen buildings standing. Those remains are the starting point for this study in which we discuss topics such as shrines, sheikhs' tombs, the soap industry and public bath, presented here as part of a preliminary survey that lays the ground for further discussion of the town's urban dynamics.

[ÖZKAN, Murat]. [87/5 Numaralı Rusya Ahkam Defterinin Transkripsiyon ve İncelenmesi (s. 1-95)], [Yüksek Lisans Tezi], Ordu, [2012].
Osmanlı Devleti ile Rusya arasındaki tarihi münasebetler başlangıcından itibaren pek dostane olmamıştır. Osmanlı Devleti'nin gerileme dönemi Rusya'nın genişleme ve güçlenme dönemidir. Rusya 1700'lerden itibaren Osmanlı Devleti'nin ciddi bir rakibidir. Kuzeyden gelen bu yeni tehdit iki devlet arasında büyük mücadelelerin yaşanmasıyla sonuçlanmış, Rusya'nın üstünlüğü ilerleyen dönemlerde bariz bir hal almıştır. Bu mücadeleler sonrasında yapılan barış antlaşmalarında iki devlet arasındaki ticarete dair hususlar bu rekabetin ekonomik boyutunu ortaya koymaktadır.
Osmanlı Devleti'nin Avrupa devletlerine “imtiyaz-ı mahsusa” adı altında verdiği haklar zamanla kapitülasyon haline dönüşmüştür. Bu çerçevede Ruslar diğer Avrupa devletlerine bahşedilen imtiyazlardan yararlanmak için Osmanlı Devleti‟ne baskı yapmıştır. Belgrad Antlaşması'nda Osmanlı gemileriyle Karadeniz‟de ticaret yapma hakkını elde eden Ruslar, Küçük Kaynarca Antlaşması ile de kendi gemileriyle Karadeniz'de ve boğazlarda serbest ticaret yapma hakkını elde etmiştir. Kırım'ı da işgal eden Ruslar Karadeniz'deki hâkimiyetlerini tamamen pekiştirmiştir. İki devlet arasında 1783 yılında imzalanan Ticaret Muahedesi'yle ticaretin hangi Şartlarda yapılacağı kararlaştırılmıştır.
Osmanlı-Rus ilişkilerinin ihmal edilen konularından biri ticari ilişkilerdir. Bu çerçevede Osmanlı arşivlerinde bulunan Düvel-i Ecnebiye Defterleri tasnifinde bulunan Rusya Ahkam Defterleri önem arzetmektedir. Yaptığımız bu çalışma Rusya Ahkam Defterlerinden olan 87/5 Numaralı Rusya Ahkam Defteri'nin transkripsiyonundan ve değerlendirmesinden oluşmaktadır. Bu defter 1797-1800 yıllarında Osmanlı Devleti ve Rusya arasında başta ticaret olmak üzere, diplomatik, siyasi, sosyal ilişkilere ve ortaya çıkan sorunların antlaşmalar çerçevesinde halledilmesine dair hükümleri ihtiva etmektedir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Osmanlı, Rusya, Ticaret, Karadeniz, Ahkam, İmtiyaz.

This study concerns itself with the first Imperial Envoy Gerard Veltwijck (ca. 1500—1555), who negotiated with the Ottoman Sultan Süleymān. Using newly discovered as well as recently published sources, it will focus on the part this diplomat of Charles V played in the negotiations with the Sublime Porte and on the considerable problems the French King and his representatives in Istanbul experienced during the talks. The Most Christian King thus became a victim of his ambivalent foreign policy while his alliance with the Sultan experienced a severe crisis. Finally, this study tries to demonstrate the impact of a diplomatic sojourn in the Levant for the envoy, as such a mission was very often followed by a considerable and far from only financial reward.

The article presents an analysis of bankruptcy as an important event of the market relations during the Bulgarian National Revival period. The problems arising around bankruptcies are the main motives for the creation of modern commercial law. The many bankruptcies in Europe in the early 19 th century caused by the wars and the crises necessitated the codification of the commercial law. Then the French 'Code de commerce' appeared, promulgated in 1807. The first commercial laws of most countries in Europe and the world were created on the model of the French 'Code'. The Ottoman Commercial Law, promulgated in 1850, was also created on the basis of French 'Code de commerce'. Most of its content is aimed at bankruptcies. The article presents data on bankruptcies of Bulgarian merchants and companies in the 1850s, 1860s, and 1870s-how, when, and for what reasons they happen. Bankruptcies of some of the rich and well-known Bulgarian companies are also presented. At the end of the article the following main conclusions are made: 1/ On the Bulgarian market, as part of the Ottoman market, the bankruptcy was documented only in the third quarter of the 19 th century, i.e. after the promulgation of the Ottoman Commercial Law. 2/ Most bankruptcies are caused by the general economic situation in the region and in Europe-the crises in the 1850s, 1860s, and 1870s, uncollected debts from traders and companies, bankruptcies of partners. The reason for the bankruptcies is also the poorly kept commercial documentation of the traders and the companies. 3/ There are also intentional bankruptcies ("cunning bankruptcies" as defined by the Ottoman Commercial Law), but the data about them are incomplete and doubtful, as the real situation in most cases remains hidden from the authorities and the commercial courts. 4/ Bankruptcies directly concern the main professional and moral categories, assessed as important during the era-the honesty, locality, reputation, self-consciousness of the commercial class. A larger study is needed to show in which direction these categories are developing in the process of formation of the Bulgarian economic culture after 1878.

The Middle East played a critical role in the development of photography as a new technology and an art form. Likewise, photography was instrumental in cultivating and maintaining Europe’s distinctively Orientalist vision of the Middle East. As new advances enhanced the versatility of the medium, nineteenth-century photographers were able to mass-produce images to incite and satisfy the demands of the region’s burgeoning tourist industry and the appetites of armchair travelers in Europe. In this way, the evolution of modern photography fueled an interest in visual contact with the rest of the world.

Photography’s Orientalism offers the first in-depth cultural study of the works of European and non-European photographers active in the Middle East and India, focusing on the relationship between photographic, literary, and historical representations of this region and beyond. The essays explore the relationship between art and politics by considering the connection between the European presence there and aesthetic representations produced by traveling and resident photographers, thereby contributing to how the history of photography is understood.

Audiences are among the dominant elements of courtly life and may be referred to as a central aspect of representation of power in many societies. Audiences also served as a stage for negotiation and political decision-making. Beyond that, the ceremonial of audience acted as an integrative factor, strengthening the connections between the ruler and his subjects, the élite and his dynastic background. It thus reflects the structure, or at least the intended structure of rule, and allows us to get insight into the perception of the ruler in the respective society. This volume offers an approach to forms and structures of audiences in different epochs and regions. Choosing a transcultural and diachronic perspective, it aims at delineating similarities and differences as well as possible lines of development of the ceremonial on a broad basis of case studies.

This article analyzes the De Bellis Gothorum, a long neglected and misunderstood history of the ancient Goths written in 1472–73 by Nicholas of Modruš, the leading Croatian-Illyrian bishop at the papal curia. By placing the work in its proper context, this article reconstructs a previously unknown episode in the political history of the fifteenth-century Adriatic. It is argued that the De Bellis Gothorum was in fact a national history that was meant to provide a trans-Adriatic network of Croatian and Bosnian nobles and churchmen with support from Naples and the papacy for their border wars against the Ottomans and reestablishment of their national kingdom.

During the early modern era foodways were an important signifier of identity. This is evident in the extensive body of literature produced by the growing number of Europeans who ventured into the Mediterranean, especially the lands of the Ottoman Empire. These travelers commented at length on the foods they encountered, their preparation, and how they were consumed. They drew on widely known classical models, as well as their own familiar foodways, to produce culinary geographies that delineated stark boundaries between East and West, Islam and Christianity, and that inscribed alterity and barbarity onto Ottoman culture. Ottomans ate undercooked bread, adulterated with seeds and spices, and meat prepared in an unrefined fashion that was barely removed from its natural state. They consumed this food while seated on the ground and without the benefit of civilized utensils, and hypocritically washed it all down with large quantities of wine. In the early modern Mediterranean world who you were was defined, at least partly, by what you ate and how you ate it.

The monograph From Ambivalence to Hostility focuses on writings on Zionism published in the Arabic newspaper Filasṭīn (ʻPalestineʼ) in the pre-WWI period (1911–1914). It covers a broad range of subjects treated by the periodical including Jewish land purchases in and immigration to Palestine, violent incidents between the Jewish and the Arab communities, Zionist boycott and Zionist Congresses. The second chapter of the book offers a detailed analysis of the gradual yet profound transformation of Filasṭīnʼs editorial policy vis-à-vis Zionism before World War I.

The First of the Modern Ottomans blends biography with intellectual history. On the one hand, it is the story of an Ottoman life – the life of the scribe, ambassador, and prolific historian Ahmed Vâsıf (ca. 1735-1806), a man who improbably rose from obscurity in Baghdad to travel the empire, fight its wars, advise its sultans, and, in time, write its history. As a full-scale biography, the book is a rarity for the field of Ottoman history and reconstructs Vâsıf’s life, career, and opinions through meticulous research in both Ottoman and European sources. On the other hand, The First of the Modern Ottomans is also one of the first detailed intellectual studies of the early modern Ottoman Empire. Weaving together Vâsıf’s life and thought with the larger intellectual currents of the day – especially at the court of Sultan Selim III in Istanbul – it explores central debates among the Ottoman ruling elite over Europe, political reform, war and peace, justice, and the empire’s renewal. Vâsıf’s life reveals a vital response to the empire’s challenges at the turn of the nineteenth century – one that was novel and deeply enmeshed in Islamic philosophy, ethics, and statecraft.

Hz. Süleyman'ın krallığı vefatının akabinde İsrail ve Yahuda olarak ikiye ayrılmıştır. Önce İsrail'in
tarih sahnesinden çekilmesi ve ardından da Yahuda krallığının yıkılması sonucu, Yahudilerin bazıları
Mezopotamya bölgesine sürgün olarak gelmişlerdir. Nitekim Diyarbakır'daki Yahudiler de bu sürgünlerin
çocuklarıdır. Yüzlerce yıl burada yaşayan Yahudiler, 1948 yılında İsrail'in kuruluşuyla Diyarbakır'ı
tamamen terk etmişlerdir. Tanzimat sonrası Diyarbakır Yahudilerinin tarihi serüvenlerine bir girizgâh yapma
iddiasında olan bu makale, Diyarbakır Şehir tarihi ile Yahudi Tarihi araştırmalarına katkı sağlamayı
hedeflemektedir.

A REVIEW AT THE DIYARBAKIR JEWS DURING THE TANZIMAT ERA
(1839-1873)
ABSTRACT
The kingdom of the king-prophet Solomon was divided into two parts as Israel and Judah after his
death. With the collapse of these kingdoms a number Jews came and settled in the Mesopotamia. The origins
the Diyarbakir Jews goes back to this episode in history. The Jews who lived in Diyarbakır for hundreds of
years abandoned the city to move to the State of Israel in 1948. This short article aims to shed some new
lights on the Diyarbakır Jews during the Tanzimat Era and thus to contribute to the Jewish studies in general
and to the history of Diyarbakir city in particular.
Key Words: Mesopotamia, Diyarbakır, Jews, Tanzimat, Israel

When the Greeks and surviving Armenians of present-day Turkey were forced to leave their homeland in 1922, the movable and immovable property they had to leave behind became known as „abandoned property“(emval-i metruke). In theory, this legal term implied that the absent owners continued to enjoy their property rights and were represented by the state. In practice, however, their houses, fields and belongings were stolen. They were used for the immediate housing needs of the remaining population, distributed among the rich and powerful and sold in public auctions. Initially, only a small part of abandoned property was under control of the new Ankara government, which was eager to use it as a source of revenue for the empty state coffers. Before it could do so, however, the government had to deal with various forms of active and passive resistance: homeless people and refugees squatted „abandoned“ homes and fields, and members of parliament initially refused to pass laws that would have legalized government administration of „abandoned“ property. From 1924 onwards, the property compensation for among incoming migrants from Greece (the so-called exchangees) threatened the financial interests of the state and pitted the newcomers against the existing population. By focusing on all these aspects of the „abandoned property“ question and the multiple forms of resistance against its administration by the state, this book offers unique insights into the social and political history of early republican Turkey.zeige weniger

When king Ladislaus III took the Hungarian throne, Poland inherited the problem of the Turkish expansion in the Balkans. The young king was eager to undertake a new crusade against the Turks. Did it stand a chance? Was it still possible to dislodge the Turks from the Balkans, and drive them back to Asia Minor? Was it at least possible to check the expansion and development of the Ottoman state in the Balkans? The answer to these questions is not easy. Certainly, on the turn of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Ottoman state was not yet an established power. It was an empire in making. Although the Turks had already become a permanent ethnic element in the Balkans, their political and military expansion could be stopped. Looking at the problem from the military point of view, it must be noted that the Turks could be defeated.

The Faculty of Arts and Letters of the University of Bonn is advertising two RA/TA positions which are attached to the Alexander von Humboldt-Chair for Islamic Studies (Prof. Dr. Judith Pfeiffer). Applicants should work towards a Ph.D. in a relevant field. For more information please visit
https://www.uni-bonn.de/de/universitaet/medien-universitaet/medien-arbeiten-an-der-uni/medien-personalmanagement/pdfs-stellenausschreibungen-wiss.ma/07-22-3-202.pdf

Extensive Greek summary of a PhD thesis submitted at King's College, London and subsequently published under the title: Laonikos Chalkokondyles, A Translation and Commentary of the “Demonstrations of Histories” (books I-III), Athens 1996, pp. 388

Osmanlıların hakimiyeti altındaki Bilâd-ı Şâm tarihsel coğrafyasının sahil kesimindeki Trablusşam Eyaleti’nin sınırları dahilinde yer alan Trablus, Cebele, Lazkiye, Tartus ve Banyas  iskeleleri doğu-batı ticaretinde önemli bir yere sahiptir. Trablus kadılarının tutmuş oldukları siciller bu iskelelerde yapılan ticaretle ilgili malumatı ihtiva etmeleri bakımından Doğu Akdeniz ticaretinin kaynakları arasında yer alır. Söz konusu kadı sicillerine, birkaçı müstesna, Türkiye’deki kütüphane, araştırma merkezi ve arşivlerde rastlamak mümkün değildir. Bu bildiride, bu kaynak üzerinde yapılan incelemeler sonucunda varılan bilgilere dair birtakım gözlemler paylaşılmıştır. Yapılan incelemelerde, Trablusşam Eyaleti’nin paşa-sancağı olan Trablus’ta görev yapmış olan kadıların tuttukları kayıtlardan 17. ve 18. yüzyıllarla ilgili olanlar üzerinde durulmuştur.
Trablusşam şerʻiye sicillerinde kayıtlı olan belgeleri genel olarak ikiye ayırmak mümkündür. Belgelerin büyük bir kısmı, kadıların Trablus ahalisinin günlük hayatıyla alakalı olarak baktıkları davalara ait kayıtlardan oluşur. Diğer belgeler arasında eyaletteki mukataalara ait iltizam hüccetleri, vakıfların işleyişi ile alakalı belgeler ve bizzat valilerin idarî-malî kontrolle alakalı yazışmalarını yansıtan kayıtlar yer almaktadır. Ayrıca valilere veya kadılara merkezî hükümet tarafından gönderilen ferman, berat, nişan, sebeb-i tahrîr hükmü suretleri gibi evâmir-i sultânî kategorisinde değerlendirilmesi mümkün olan kayıtlara hemen her ciltte rastlamak mümkündür. Söz konusu belgelerin içerikleri incelendiğinde, tütün, zeytin yağı, sabun, pamuk pamuk ipliği gibi ticari emtianın ihracında nasıl bir vergilendirmeye gidildiği, iskelelerdeki ticari faaliyetin güvenliği için ne gibi önlemlerin alındığı konuları hakkında verilere rastlanabilmektedir. Ayrıca bu defterlerden, gümrük ticaretinde devlet kontrolünün sağlanmasında hangi hususlara ehemmiyet verildiğine dair malumat edinmek mümkündür.

Anahtar Kelimeler / Keywords:
Trablusşam Eyaleti, Trablus kadı sicilleri, pamuk, zeytin yağı, tütün

Abstract: This work investigates fourteen non-Muslim (Christian and Jewish) waqfs and also those for “poor Muslims”. In the literature this is the first work to shed light on “unusual waqfs” which are unusual among innumerable non-Muslim waqfs. Five of these waqfs are charitable, and the other nine ones are ahlî (family) waqf in type. The names of these waqf founders are as following: Âkile bt. Harun b. İbrahim (Jewish), Mansur b. Abdullah (Jewish), Gâliye bt. Sadun Kallâş (Jewish), Musa b. Davut b. Yakub (Jewish), Süleyman b. Davud (Jewish), Panayot veled-i [v.] Rafir (Greek), Semha bint-i [bt.] Musa (Jewish), Benyamin v. Musa (Jewish), Limon v. Yani (Greek), Halepli Sefer (Armenian), Sakyas v. Hacader v. Zirek (Armenian), Anica bt. Radul v. Angili (Greek), Mihail v. Toma (Greek) ve Nikolaki v. Şahin (Greek).

The work is divided into two parts. In the first part, the legal background which allowed foundations to be set up for non-Muslims will be given with regard to its basis in history. The place and development of these foundations in Islamic and Ottoman history will be summarized retrospectively. The ideas of Shaykh al-Islam Ebussuud Efendi, who shaped the legal framework of non-Muslim foundations, will be examined in this context. In the second part, fourteen waqfs in question will be examined and the copies of the related documents (waqf deeds) will be found in facsimile form in an appendix. It has been hoped to arrive at the concept of a consensus for the perception of charity for the subjects of the Ottoman Empire, regardless of their religious identity.

Öz: Bu çalışma, fukarâ-yı Müslimînin yararını da gözeten on dört gayrimüslim (Hıristiyan ve Yahudi) vakfını ele almaktadır. Sayısız gayrimüslim vakfı arasında farklı bir yerde duran “aykırı vakıflar”a, literatürde ilk defa bu çalışma ile ışık tutulmaktadır. Osmanlı döneminde kurulan söz konusu vakıfların beşi hayrî, dokuzu ise ehlî (aile, zürrî) vakıf niteliğindedir. Vakıfların kurucuları şunlardır: Âkile? bt. Harun b. İbrahim (Yahudi), Mansur b. Abdullah (Yahudi), Gâliye bt. Sadun Kallâş (Yahudi), Musa b. Davud b. Yakub (Yahudi), Panayot v. Rafir (Rum), Semha bt. Musa (Yahudi), Benyamin v. Musa (Yahudi), Limon v. Yani (Rum), Halepli Sefer (Ermeni), Sakyas v. Hacader v. Zirek (Ermeni), Anica bt. Radul v. Angili (Rum), Mihail v. Toma (Rum) ve Nikolaki v. Şahin (Rum).

Çalışma iki bölümden oluşmaktadır. Birinci bölümde, tarihsel bir temel oluşturması bakımından gayrimüslimlerin vakıf kurmalarına imkân veren hukuki arka plan ele alınacak, bu vakıfların İslâm ve Osmanlı tarihindeki yeri ve gelişimi retrospektif açıdan incelenecektir. Osmanlıda gayrimüslim vakıflarına hukuki bir zemin kazandıran Şeyhülislâm Ebussuud Efendi’nin görüşleri de bu bağlamda tartışılacaktır. İkinci bölümde on dört vakıf incelenecek, ilgili vakfiye ve belgelerin kopyaları çalışmanın sonunda verilecektir. Bu vakıflarla ilgili ayrıntıların açıklığa kavuşturulması ile, dinî aidiyetleri ne olursa olsun, tebaa arasında var olan geçişkenlik ve vakıf kültürü gibi konular hakkında bir yoruma ulaşılması umulmaktadır.

The concept of authenticity, as defined in international circles between the 1960s and the 1994 Nara Conference on Heritage, has been one of the main instruments used to define policies aiming at heritage protection during the last few decades. The concept also became more than an instrument: it shaped entire approaches to the question of the built heritage and to the process – social and political – aiming at its conservation and restoration. For this reason, it has been the object of intense discussions, with scholars and activists denouncing some of its founding ambiguities as being tied to static and sometimes culturalist conceptions of history, to colonial visions, and to policies of social segregation. The object of this chapter is to reflect on such debates around the case of the city of Aleppo, and particularly around the way its medieval and Ottoman built heritage was dealt with in the period of the Ottoman reforms of the second half of the 19th century, the period of French colonial occupation, and the various phases of independence up to its present- day tragic destruction.

Cengiz Han’ın ölümü ile birlikte onun kurmuş olduğu büyük imparatorluk oğulları arasında pay edilmiştir. Çağatay Han,  Doğu ve Batı Türkistan’ın hemen hemen bütün bölgelerinde hakimiyet kurmuştur. Çağatay Hanlığı dini çeşitlilik bakımından kozmopolit bir yapıya sahiptir. Çagatay Han bu bölgelerde hakimiyetini sağlamlaştırmak maksadı ile istimâlet politikası gütmüştür. 1326 tarihinde Tarmaşirin Han Çağatay Hanlığı’nın hükümdarlığına geçmiş ve Müslümanlığı kabul ettikten sonra Alâeddin adını almıştır. Tarmaşirin’in İslamiyet’i kabul etmesi ile birlikte İslam ülkeleri ve Çağatay Hanlığı arasındaki ticari ve siyasi ilişkiler gelişme göstermiştir. Tarmaşirin’in İslam ülkeleri ile iyi ilişkiler içinde olması Moğol gelenek ve göreneklerine bağlı bazı kesimler tarafından hoş karşılanmamış ve Tarmaşirin’in amcaoğlu Bûzun’a bağlılıklarını bildirmişlerdir. Çağatay Hanlığı’nı yeniden canlandırmak isteyen gelenekçi Yedisu ve Cungarya’da bulunan Moğol beyleri Tarmaşirin’i tahttan indirerek onu öldürmüşlerdir. Tarmaşirin Han’ın öldürülmesi üzerine çıkan karışıklıklar ve istikrarsızlık hanlığın çöküşüne kadar gitmiştir. Siyasi bir birlikteliğin olmaması sonucu  Çağatay ulusu ikiye ayrılmıştır. Birisi yerleşik ve halkın çoğunluğu Müslüman olan Maverâünnehir, diğeri ise Moğol gelenek ve göreneklerine bağlı, atlı-göçebe kültürünü devam ettiren Moğolistan olmuştur.

With the death of Genghis Khan, the great empire he founded was shared among his sons. Chagatai Khan established dominance in almost all the regions of East and West Turkistan. Chagatai Khanate has a cosmopolitan structure in terms of
religious diversity. Chagatai Khan pursued a policy of exploitation in order to consolidate his dominance in these regions. In 1326, Tarmashirin Khan became the ruler of Chagatai Khanate and took the name Alaeddin after converting to Islam. With
Tarmashirin's adoption of Islam, trade and political relations between Islamic countries and Chagatai Khanate developed. The fact that Tarmashirin had good relations with Islamic countries was not welcomed by some sections of the Mongolian
traditions and customs and they announced their allegiance to his uncle's son Buzun. The traditional Mongolian lords in Yedisu and Dzungaria who wanted to revive the Chagatai Khanate, dethroned Tarmashirin and killed him. The turmoil and
instability following the killing of Tarmashirin Khan led all the way to the collapse of the khanate. As a result of the lack of political unity, the Chagatai nation was divided into two. One was the settled Transoxiana, the majority of which was
Muslim, and the other was Mongolia, which maintained its equestrian-nomadic culture, adhering to Mongolian traditions and customs.

Osmanlı Devleti ile Venedik Cumhuriyeti arasında, küçük birtakım mücadeleleri kenara bırakırsak en temelde yedi ayrı savaş meydana gelmiştir. Savaşların son üçü ise incelediğimiz tarih aralığında yaşanmıştır... bu savaşların çoğu Osmanlılar tarafından Venediklileri Balkanlardan tamamen atmak için bilinçli bir politikanın ürünü olarak çıkarılmışlardır. Çünkü Osmanlı yöneticileri için karada Venediklilerle yapılacak olan savaş denizde yapılanların aksine çok daha kolay neticelenecek ve istenilen hedefe çok hızlı bir şekilde ulaşmak mümkün olacaktır. Hatta bir kronikte ifade edildiği şekliyle; “Venedik keferesi dahi deryâ cengi hilekârlığında akrânı nadir pehlevândır. Lâkin karada musâff cenglerine zehresi olmayup, kal’alarından taşra çıkması güya balık sudan çıkduğı misillidür".  Ancak, burada ifade edildiği şekliyle kara özelinde cereyan eden
savaşlarda -ki bunlar meydan savaşları değil kuşatma savaşlarıdır- Venedikliler, Osmanlıların ifade ettiği gibi pek de sudan çıkmış balık olmamışlar; aksine Osmanlı ordusunu birçok noktada mağlup etmişler veya başarılı savunmalar gerçekleştirmişlerdir.