The
J e w is h
M id r a s h im
and
E xegesis
R.
P a tr is tic
o f th e
and
S c h o la s tic
B ib le
L O E W E , C a m b r id g e
M y rem arks today are to be considered as m ade less w ith the
intention of im parting inform ation than of eliciting it from the
discussionw hich I hope that they w ill provoke. I put them before
you w ith diffidence, since I cannot claim to speak w ith authority
upon either of the tw o literary spheres that concern m e here.
A t the sam e tim e, the kind of correlation w hich I am attem pting
h a s n o t, I th in k , b e e n e s s a y e d
b e fo r e , a n d it s e e m s w o r th in v e s ti-
gating w hether it can lead us to anysignificant positive results.
I w elcom e eagerly the decision of those responsible for arranging
this P atristics C onference to establish a section specifically
concerned w ith Jew ish aspects, and hope that it m ay be considered appropriate to devote a session to w hat w ill prim arily be
an investigation into m ethod, designed to indicate that rabbinic,
patristic, and scholastic studies can still prove m utnallyfertilising
in the field of biblical exegesis.
M y paper w ill fall into tw o halves. In the first, I shall concern
m yself w ith the w ay in w hich a use of Jew ish biblical exegesis
can aid the study of patristic and later C hristian exegesis, and
m ore
e s p e c ia lly
on
th is
o c c a s io n ,
vice versa';
and
fr o m
th is
I
shall pass to a com parison of the m ethodology of rabbinic and
patristic scriptural herm eneutics respectively. T he point of such
c o m p a r is o n
is
to
sh ow
how
e ith e r
sy ste m
m ay
e x h ib it
fe a tu r e s
w hich are, at first sight, not to be discerned in the other, but
w hich m ay reveal them selves to a correctly orientated investigatio n ;
th e ir
in itia l
c o n c e a lm e n t
b e in g
due
to
th e
c ir c u m s ta n c e
that they m ust be sought in different places, and expressed in
different form s, appropriate to the nature of the psychology,
theology, and literature of the system in w hich they are looked
for, since they w ill not necessarily be categorised in the sam e
w ay by Judaism and C hristianity.
Midreshim
a n d P a tr is tic
E x e g e s is
o f th e B ib le
493
It is just over a hundred years since Graetz pointed out the
im portance of patristics, or rather of the writings of a few of the
Church Fathers, for the study of the rabbinic exegesis of the
Bible. Since then a few Jewish scholars have worked this m ine,
exploring in particular the few rich seam s - especially the
writings of St. Jerom e and Ephraem Syrus. The m ain work
here was done by Rahm er, Krauss, the late Professor Louis
Ginzberg, whose death a year or two ago was a severe blow
to several facets of Jewish scholarship, and by S. Lieberm an. Ginzberg has placed us all heavily in his debt by his
seven-volum e corpus, in English, entitled The Legends of the
Jeuis",
I n th is w o r k , th e
v a r io u s r e c e n s io n s o f th e
in d iv id u a l
legends are conHated into a coherent whole, arranged readably,
and in accordance with biblical chronology; the sources and
variants are fully exhibited in the notes, which also cover parallels from patristic literature, and even further afield. Above all,
the whole work is m agnificently indexed, not m erely with regard
to the subject m atter. Its num erous special indexes cover reference to the Apocrypha, Josephus, Philo, rabbinic and patristic
literature, etc. I suspect that the great value of this work as an
instrum ent for the com parative study of exegesis is not fully
realised outside the field of Jewish studies, to the prosecution
o f w h ic h it w a s , o f c o u r s e , p r im a r ly in te n d e d a s a c o n tr ib u tio n .
On the other hand, students of Christian theology have com e
during the past century to rediscover the indispensability of
rabbinics for their studies, but chiefly with regard to their core
_ the New Testam ent itself. In this sphere the works of W inter
and W iinsche, of Claude M ontefiore, of Strack and Billerbeck,
and of som e of the contributors to Kittel's Theologisches Worterbuch, have opened up and alm ost worked out the resources of
rabbinic literature. It m ay be worth rem arking here that for
students who wish to go behind these standard reference works
to their sources, but who have not the necessary linguistic equip1
G in z b e r g ,
in
h is
n o te s,
su b su m es
th e
a n d g iv e s r e fe r e n c e s , b u t d o e s n o t lis t th e m
m a n 's
le s tin e "
"G reek
in
have
s in c e
J e w is h
been
P a le s tin e "
p u b lis h e d .
and
w ork
of
h is
p red ecessors
in a b ib lio g r a p h y .
" H e lle n is m
in
S . L ie b e r -
J e w is h
Pa-
494
R .L o E W E
m e n t to d o so , c o m p le te E n g lish tra n sla tio n s o f th e B a b y lo n ia n
T a lm u d , th e
Midrash Rabbah, a n d th e Zohar h a v e n o w b e c o m e
a v a ila b le '; b u t th a t, lik e a ll c y c lo p e a n p ro je c ts o f tra n sla tio n ,
th e y sh o u ld b e h a n d le d w ith c irc u m sp e c tio n b y th o se w h o m u st
n e e d s c o n su lt th e m c y c lo p ic a lly . O u tsid e th e a c tu a l te x t a n d th e
im m e d ia te b a c k g ro u n d o f th e N e w T e sta m e n t, th e m o re o b v io u s
p a ra lle ls b e tw e e n p a tristic a n d ra b b in ic m a te ria l h a v e a lso b e e n
la rg e ly c o lle c te d b y th e sc h o la rs w h o se n a m e s I h a v e a lre a d y
m en tio n ed , w h o se p rin cip le co n cern w a s w ith J ew ish stu d ies.
T o cite tw o ex a m p les, I m a y m en tio n E u seb iu s' sta tem en t, d eriv e d fro m th e ' A g g a d a , th a t A b ra h a m o b se rv e d th e p re c e p ts o f
th e T o ra h a lth o u g h it h a d n o t y e t b e e n re v e a le d 2; a n d th e in te rp re ta tio n o f P s. 1 ,1 , "B le sse d is th e m a n ...
w h o h a th n o t sa t
in th e sea t o f th e sco rn fu l" , a s referrin g to th e a v o id a n ce o f
g la d ia to ria l d isp la y s in th e R o m a n th e a tre s a n d c irc u se s, w h ic h
is to b e fo u n d b o th in th e T o se p h ta a n d in T e rtu llia n '. T h e re
a re a lso n o t a fe w ra b b in ic p a ssa g e s o c c a sio n e d b y th e n e e d fe lt
to c o n tro v e rt C h ristia n d o g m a in so fa r a s it c la im e d to b e ro o te d
in th e fa ith o f Isra e l. O n e m a y c ite th e e x e g e sis o f R . H ilk ia h ,
a 4 th c e n tu ry P a le stin ia n ,
o f th e te x t in E c c le sia ste s (4 ,8 ),
"T h e re is O n e a lo n e , a n d n o t a se c o n d ; y e a , h e h a th n e ith e r
c h ild n o r b ro th e r".
If, a rg u e d H ilk ia h , G o d c o u ld n o t to le ra te
th e sa c rific e o f h is o n ly so n w h ic h A b ra h a m w a s p re p a re d to
c a rry o u t, is it c o n c e iv a b le th a t H e sh o u ld H im se lf h a v e h a d a
so n a n d le t h im d ie , a s is a lle g e d l'
T h e p a lp a b ly a p o lo g e tic
c h a ra c te r o f su c h e x e g e sis a s th is w a s re c o g n ise d a lre a d y b y
m e d ia e v a l C h ristia n
p rin te d
c o n tro v e rsia lists
e d itio n s o f th e
T a lm u d .
and
by
th e c e n so rs o f
S u c h m a te ria l
h a s a lre a d y
b e e n n o te d b y W .< B a c h e r, in th e c o u rse o f h is m o n u m e n ta l
1 A ll p u b lish ed b y th e S o n c in o P ress, v a rio u s tra n sla to rs.
L . G o ld .
sc h m id t's G e r m a n tr a n sla tio n o f th e B a b y lo n ia n T a lm u d m a y a lso b e
m e n tio n e d , a s w e ll M . S c h w a b e 's F r e n c h o n e o f th e P a le stin ia n (so c a lle d J e r u sa le m ) T a lm u d .
2 D e m o n stra tio
e v a n g e lic a 1 6 ,7
(G C S 2 3 , p. 2 4 ); B a b y lo n ia n T a lm u d Y a m a 2 8 b . S e e K r a u ss in th e J e w ish Q u a r te r ly R e v ie w (O ld
S e r ie s), v o l. 6 , (1 8 9 4 ), p . 8 4 .
a 'A b h o d h a h Z a ra h 2 ; 5 - 6 ; D e sp e e ta e u lis 3 (C S E L 2 0 , p . 5 )
'" 'A g g a d a th B e re sh ith , e d . S . B u b e r , § 3 1 , e n d , p . 6 4 , r e p o r te d b y
R . 'Abin.
M idrashim
stu d ies
a n d P a tr istic E x e g e sis
o n th e 'A g g a d a o f th e ta n n a itic
o f th e B ib le
495
a n d a m o ra ic p erio d s,
and it can m ostly be follow ed up by referring to the indexes
of his volum es.
M y ow n concern is not to repeat the w ork that has been so
com petently done by the heroic figures of the 19th century science
of Judaism ; but rather to look for traces of influences and reactions that are less obvious, and w hich m ay reflect on the w hole
a m utual stim ulation of Jew ish and C hristian biblical theology
that w as less negative, and perhaps even positive, precisely beca u se it w a s less co n scio u s - o r a t a n y ra te less co n scio u sly ap o ~
logetic. I have in m ind on the one hand the handful of scholars
of the W estern C hurch w ho w ere w ell im bued w ith a know ledge
of the H ebrew B ible, and w ho in their study of it had invoked the
a ssista n ce o f litera ry o r o f co n tem p o ra ry o ra l J ew ish so u rces.
T hese scholars w ere, it is true, fully conscious of a clearly defined
point beyond w hich to them , as C hristians, Jew ish biblical exegesis conld be of no use; bnt it is not im possible that in the course
of their study of Jew ish sources they som etim es cam e, doubtless
w ithout fully realising it, to adopt som e essentially Jew ish categories of thought and to reproduce them in their ow n w riting.
L exicographical analysis and statistics can probably teach us
m uch here; and the study of the vocabulary - or of certain
key w ords in it - of S t. Jerom e is of fundam ental im portance
in this respect, not m erely for the origin and developem ent of a
C hristian vocabulary, but to som e extent for the study of the
sem antics of m odern and m ediaeval languages in E urope. I quote
as an exam ple Jerom e's treatm ent of the H ebrew root om = to
console, w hich, in the niph' al and hithpa' el form s, m eans to
" rep en t a n d ch a n g e o n e's p u rp o se" ; in th is sen se it is u sed in th e
H ebrew B ible indiscrim inately, of m an and G od. T he A ram aic
targum im , both Jew ish and S am aritan, sense the im propriety
of the latter; and w hereas the Jew ish targum im retain Vom of
m an's change of purpose in 3(5 cases, they never use it of G od, in
connection w ith w hom they render Vom by V:J1n = retnrn.
R a b b in ic ex eg esis, a s o p p o sed to p a ra p h ra stic tra n sla tio n , ev in ces
the sam e susceptibility '. In the S eptuagint there seem s to be
1
G e n e sis R a b b a h
§ 27. 4
j
B a b y lo n ia n
T a lm u d S andedrin
108 a.
R .L o E W E
496
no consistent attem pt to elim inate the im propriety, except in
the P entateuch and possibly Jerem iah, w here the verb naoa"aJ.eirrf}ot is probably thought to palliate, though it clearly does
not elim inate, the anthropom orphism involved in applying the
verb pem'Dei. to G od. A quila's evidence does not add m uch
to this. Jerom e's ow n treatm ent of the problem is m ore rigorous
than that of any of the G reek versions, although he does not
press his scruples to the length to w hich the targum goes. A
d if f e r e n t ia t io n s e e m s t o e m e r g e b e t w e e n
p o s it iv e
a n d n e g a t iv e
statem ents concerning G od and involving Yom. W here the
text states that G od does not, or did not, change H is m ind,
Jerom e finds no objection to the use of poenitet - his usual w ord
w h e r e m a n is c o n c e r n e d
t im e s r e j e c t it . W here,
-
a lt h o u g h
h e " d o e s , i t is t r u e , s o m e -
h o w e v e r , t h e s t a t e m e n t is p o s it iv e a b o u t
G od, Jerom e apparently feels com pelled to retain poenitet if the
r e f e r e n c e is t o t h e p a s t ; o t h e r w is e h e is a t p a in s t o a v o id it , a n d
misereri e t c , ignoscere, placabilis e t c ,
pmestabilis, and exorabilis. A lthough Jerom e is not exactly in
step w ith the targum im on this issue, it seem s difficult to exclude
the probability that the Jew ish treatm ent of the theological
and linguistic problem had m ade som e im pression upon him ;
and it is not im possible that he had enough A ram aic to read the
targum w hich w ere then current for him self '.
w h e r e f e a s ib le s u b s t it u t e s
It is perhaps necessary to point out that w e are liable to
m islead ourselves if w e exam ine, w ith this particular kind of
q u e s t io n in m in d , t h e w r it in g s o f J e w is h c o n v e r t s t o C h r is t ia n it y .
T he very fact that such w riters had abandoned Judaism w as
liable either to discredit and thus distort for them the Jew ish
categories of thought in w hich they had been reared, or to blur
the definition of such categories because the convert had convinced him self that they could be facilely com bined, or identified,
w ith the theological categories of W estern C hristianity. A t the
sam e tim e, the w ritings _of a few of these converts did exert
a considerable influence ~ notably those of P eter A lphonsi in
the 12th century ~ and they are im portant in the present
1
S e e m y a r tic le in V e tu s T e s ta m e n tu m " I I ,
3 (1 9 5 2 ).
497
a n d P a tr is tic E x e g e s is o f th e B ib le
M id ra s h im
c o n n e c tio n a s firs t-h a n d s o u rc e s o f in fo rm a tio n a b o u t p o s t-b ib lic a l J e w is b
lite ra tu re
and
in s titu tio n s ,
w h ic h w e re la id u n d e r
c o n tr ib u tio n b y m e d ia e v a l C h r istia n e x e g e te s a n d c o n tr o v e r sia -
It i s c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t a c a r e f u l c o m p a r i s o n o f , s a y , A l -
lis ts .
Dialogues of Moses and Peter
p h o n s i 's
ta tio n s
w ith a d a p ta tio n s
and quo-
fro m th e m in la te r w rite rs m ig h t s h o w s u b tle , u n a v o w e d
in flu e n c e s u p o n th e la tte r s im ila r to th o s e to w h ic h I h a v e a llu d e d
in th e c a s e o f S t. J e ro m e . B u t I s h o u ld m a k e it c le a r th a t I h a v e
n o t m y s e lf m a d e a n y s u c h c o m p a ris o n s in th e c a s e o f A lp h o n s i
or any
If,
o th e r e x -J e w is h w rite r.
on
th e
s tim u lu s
o th e r
hand,
w e lo o k fo r tra c e s o f th e
c o n v e rse
th a t a ffo rd e d to J e w is h th o u g h t b y C h ris tia n b ib lic a l
th e o lo g y , w e s h a ll, I th in k , fin d th a t
it d e riv e s fro m a c o n tro -
v e r sia list m o tiv e , b u t o n e w ith a d iffe r e n c e ; n a m e ly , a r e c o g n itio n
on
th e J e w is h
s id e th a t
th e c h ris to lo g ic a l a s s e rtio n s o f
e c c le s ia s tic a l e x e g e s is m u s t b e m e t p o s itiv e ly . In o th e r w o rd s ,
c h ris to lo g ic a l e x e g e s is a c te d a s a c h a lle n g e to th e S y n a g o g u e to
p ro v e b y its o w n th a t
it w a s in n o s e n s e s p iritu a lly p o o re r th a n
th e C h u rc h fo r its re je c tio n
o f th e In c a rn a tio n , its p e rs is te n c e
in r e g a r d in g th e m e ssia n ic e r a a s still in th e fu tu r e , o r its in s is to n c e th a t
th e te x ts u p o n w h ic h th e C h u rc h p la c e d a c h ris to -
lo g ic a l c o n s tru c tio n
w e re to b e u n d e rs to o d
h is to ric a l e x p e rie n c e o f th e
a s re fe rrin g to th e
J e w is h p e o p le . T h is w o u ld n o t b e
th e firs t tim e th a t th e s p iritu a l q u a litie s o f a n a lie n s y s te m h a d
a fo rm a tiv e e ffe c t u p o n J u d a is m ;
it h a s b e e n p o in te d o u t'
th e in s titu tio n s o f p h a ris a ic a n d ra b b in ic J u d a is m
s o m e th in g
th a t
m a y w e ll o w e
to th e im p re s s io n w h ic h P e rs ia n p ie tis m
a n d e th ic s
m a d e o n t h e J e w r i e s o f B a b y l o n i a 'a n d P a l e s t i n e . I n t h e s a m e
w ay,
th e
in
th e
Jew
C h ris tia n ;
la te r
m id d le a g e s th e
fo u n d in
w ith
J u d a is m
th e
re s u lt
posed a
th a t
s p iritu a l
p ro b le m
s u ffic ie n c y w h ic h
th e
th in k in g
re lig io u s d is p u ta tio n s
to
b e tw e e n
J e w ish a n d C h r istia n sc h o la r s w e r e a g a in in itia te d , a n d a c o n tr o v e rs ia l lite ra tu re ,
n o t a ll o f it m a rk e d b y a c rim o n y , p re c ip ita -
te d .
1 See
S . W . B a r o n . A S o c ia l a n d R e lig io n s H is to r y o f th e J e w s .
2 n d e d . 1 9 5 2 , V o l. I , p p . 1 5 9 , 2 2 8 . B u t th e e v id e n c e fo r th e d ir e c tio n
o f in flu e n c e is e q u iv o c a l: s e e ib id ., P' 3 6 6 , n o te 3 2 .
498
R.LoEWE
E x c e p t w ith in th e se ttin g o f su c h fo rm a l d isp u ta tio n s,
th e
c h a lle n g e c o u ld n o t h e m e t b y Ju d a ism o th e rw ise th a n o b liq u e ly .
D ire c t a n ti-c h ristia n
p ro p a g a n d a ,
w h e th e r in th e fo rm o f e x -
egesis or not, was scarcely feasible after Justinian's edict of 556,
a n d in a n y c a se th e R a b b is w e re p rim a rily c o n c e rn e d w ith th e
in stru c tio n o f th e ir o w n flo c k . T h e y c o n sid e re d it to b e th e ir
ta sk to
e m b o d y in th e ir
h o m ile tic s
a n d fo rm a l e x e g e sis -
p a rtic u la rly th e v e rn a c u la r A ra m a ic ta rg u m irn , w h ic h e x p o u n d e d
th e H e b re w o rig in a l, a n d w h e re re c ite d a lte rn a te ly w ith it, v e rse
b y v e rse , in p u b lic w o rsh ip -
th e n e c e ssa ry te a c h in g to e n a b le
th e Je w to a n sw e r C h ristia n e v a n g e lism , w h ic h h e m ig h t h e a r
p re a c h e d in th e ' m a rk e t p la c e o r m e e t w ith in th e c o u rse o f h is
b u sin e ss o r so c ia l re la tio n sh ip s. T h u s, fo r e x a m p le , th e ta rg u m
to Isa ia h 6 , 3 e x p a n d s
th e
th e
1 4 w o rd s o f th e v e rse c o n ta in in g
Trisagion in to 2 5 , in o rd e r to m a k e it u n e q u iv o c a lly c le a r
th a t th e th re e fo ld
Ili"p
re fe rs to o n e in d iv isib le G o d , " H o ly in
th e u tte rm o st h e ig h ts, th e p la c e .o f H is S h e k h in a h , H o ly u p o n
e a rth th e w o rk o f H is m ig h t, H o ly fo r e v e r a n d e v e r, Y a h w e h
o f H o sts, w ith th e b rig h tn e ss o f W h o se g lo ry th e w h o le e a rth
is fu ll" . S o im p o rta n t w a s th e g e n e ra l fa m ilia rity w ith th e o rth o d o x Je w ish e x e g e sis o f th is v e rse fe lt to b e , th a t its ta rg u m ic
p a ra p h ra se w a s in c o rp o ra te d
in to th e d a ily litu rg y a lo n g sid e
the original, apart from its a n n u a l occurrence in a pericope from
th e P ro p h e ts. S im ila rly , th o u g h le ss p o sitiv e ly , th e ta rg u m
is
c irc u m sp e c t in its re n d e rin g o f th e S o n g o f th e V in e y a rd in
Isa ia h 5 , 1 - 7 . T h e p a ra b le is e n tire ly e lim in a te d , th e v in e y a rd
b e in g m e n tio n e d in th e first v e rse o n ly , w h ic h m a k e s th e o b je c t
o f th e sim ile im m e d ia te ly e x p lic it: " I w ill n o w sin g u n to Isra e l,
w h ic h is lilre n e d to a v in e y a rd , th e se e d o f A b ra h a m m y frie n d ,
a so n g o f m y frie n d to u c h in g h is v in e y a rd " . V e rse 7 , th e c lim a x
in th e o rig in a l, " fo r th e v in e y a rd o f th e L o rd o f H o sts is th e
house of Israel", has to become, almost tautologously, "for the
p e o p le o f th e L o rd o f H o sts is th e h o u se o f Isra e l" . T h e se n sitiv ity o f th is ta rg u m ist in re g a rd to th e v in e m e ta p h o r m u st,
I th in k , b e a c c o u n te d fo r b y its h a v in g b e c o m e so in tim a te ly
woven into the fabric of Christianity: "I am the true vine, and
m y F a th e r is th e h u sb a n d m a n . E v e ry b ra n c h in m e th a t b e a re th
M id r a s h im
n o t fru it,
a n d P a t r is t ic
E x e g e s is
o f t h e B ib le
499
h e ta k e th it a w a y : a n d e v e ry b ra n c h th a t
b e a re th
fru it, h e c le a n se th it" (Jo h n 1 5 , If.). T h u s fo r C a ssio d o ru s th e
"v in e b ro u g h t o u t o f E g y p t"
th e C h u rc h ';
in P sa lm 8 0 , 9 is a n a lle g o ry fo r
w h ile fo r S t B e rn a rd th e "v in e y a rd s o f E n -g e d i"
in th e S o n g o f S o lo m o n 1 ,1 4 m e a n its m e m b e rs'.
T h is c o n -
c lu sio n n e e d s to b e c h e c k e d a g a in st th e e v id e n c e , a n d if p o ssib le
th e c h ro n o lo g y , o f Je w ish ic o n o g ra p h y , in w h ic h th e v in e m o tif
in t h e
is q u it e f r e q u e n t ; it w a s f o u n d , f o r in s t a n c e ,
3 r d c e n tu r y
sy n a g o g u e a t D u ra-E u ro p o s".
T o tu rn to e x a m p le s o f e sse n tia lly p o sitiv e c o n trib u tio n s fro m
th e C h ristia n
R 'A b b a h u
m e ro u s
4
sid e to
I q u o te first a re m a rk o f
th e Je w ish ,
to th e e ffe c t th a t
G o d c re a te d a n d d e stro y e d n u -
w o rld s b e fo re u ltim a te ly
p ro d u c in g th e p re se n t
one,
w h ic h a lo n e sa tisfie d H im . ' A b b a h u 's d a te s a re c . 2 7 9 -3 2 0 ; h e
liv e d in C aesarea,
a n d h e is k n o w n t o h a v e h a d c o n t r o v e r s ia l
d is c u s s io n s w it h C h r is t ia n s . H is t e a c h e r , R . Y o h a n a n ,
d isc ip le
a n d frie n d o f R
su g g e ste d
H o sh a'y a
w ith so m e p la u sib ility '
R abba;
th a t
w a s th e
a n d it h a s b e e n
th e la tte r
b e lo n g e d to
O rig e n 's c irc le o f Je w ish frie n d s. 'A b b a h u 's re m a rk , w h e n a llo w a n c e is m a d e f o r it s g r a p h ic s e m it ic id io m , s t r ik e s o n e a s n o t
u n lik e O rig e n 's m o d ific a tio n o f th e S to ic th e o ry o f e n d le ss w o rld c y c le s-n a m e ly ,
to th e e ffe c t th a t th e y a re fin ite a n d m u tu a lly
d iffe re n t'.
O rig e n d ie d 2 5 y e a rs b e fo re th e a p p ro x im a te d a te o f
'A b b a h u 's
b irth , b u t th e lin k b e tw e e n th e m m ig h t w e ll h a v e
b e e n 'A b b a h u 's
te a c h e r R Y o h a n a n , h im se lf th e d isc ip le o f a
p o ssib le a c q u a in ta n c e o f O rig e n 7 .
E x p o s. in P s. L X X IX
• S e rrn . in C a n t. X L IV
1
3
See
" E x c a v a t io n s
M .1 . R o s t o v t z e f f
J e w is h
S y m b o ls
p . 7 j v o l.
et
(P L 7 0 , 5 8 2 ) .
(P L 1 8 3 , 9 9 6 C ).
a t D u ra -E u ro p o e ",
S ix t h
a l. ( 1 9 3 6 ) ,
in t h e
pp.
G r e c o -R o m a n
3 3 8 ,3 6 7 .
P e r io d , v o l. 2 ,
4 , p p . 4 , 1 2 , 2 1 , 3 7 , a n d fig u r e
.. G e n e s is R a b b a h § 3 , 7 .
Ii B y
G r a e t z , M o n a t s s c h r if t
fu r
S eason
A ls o
d ie
p.
A nnual 22
(1 9 4 9 ) 3 0 0 ,
6 8 ; v o l. 3 , in d e x ,
622.
G e s c h ic h t e
.
und
d e s Ju d e n th u m s,
V o l. 3 0 (1 8 8 1 ), p p - 4 3 3 f., 4 4 2 .
• D e p rin c ip iis II 3 , I (G C S 2 2 , p . 1 1 4 ).
7
S e e m y a r t ic le " J e r o m e 's R e n d e r in g s o f 'O la m ",
C o lle g e
(1 9 3 2 -1 9 3 3 ),
E . R . G oodenough,
W is s e n s c h a f t
H ebrew
U n io n
500
R.LoEW E
S im ila r ly , it is in s tr u c tiv e
to s e t th e e c c le s ia s tic a l a n d
th e
r a b b in ic e x e g e s is o f P s a lm 1 s id e b y s id e . " B le s s e d is th e m a n
th a t w a lk e th n o t in th e c o u n s e l o f th e u n g o d ly " . T h e c e n tr a l
f ig u r e o f th e P s a lm is id e n tif ie d b y s o m e o f th e F a th e r s -
am ong
th e m O r ig e n , E u s e b iu s , a n d S t. A u g u s tin e , a s w e ll a s d e p e n d e n t
a u th o r s -
w ith J e s u s : a n o p in io n h e ld o r ig in a lly a ls o b y S t J e -
r o m e , th o u g h J e r o m e la te r
id e n tif ie d th e h a p p y m a n o f th e
P s a lm w ith th e ju s t in g e n e r a l -
a f a ir ly o b v io u s e x p la n a tio n ,
w h ic h it is n o t s u r p r is in g to f in d p a r a lle le d in th e J e w is h tr e a tm e n t. J e r o m e m e n tio n s , in c id e n ta lly , th a t
th e P s a lm w ith r e f e r e n c e to J o s ia h
-
th e J e w s e x p la in e d
a n in te r p r e ta tio n
th a t
has left no trace in surviving rabbinic literature as far as I am
a w a r e . M o r e o v e r , J e r o m e c o n tr a s ts th e O ld T e s ta m e n t, w h ic h
h e s a y s c a n p r o d u c e b u t th is s in g le b e a titu d e , w ith th e e ig h t o f
th e G o s p e ls ' . C a n s o m e s u c h c o u n te r c la im o f s u p e r io r ity u n d e r lie
th e r e m a r k s o f R. J o s h u a b . K o r h a h ( 2 n d c e n tu r y ) a n d R. J u d a h
th e f ir s t w o r d , ,,!lill
= h a p p y , o c c u r s 2 0 tim e s in th e b o o k o f P s a lm s ( o r 2 2 ; th e
th e P r in c e ( e a r ly 3 r d ) , to th e e f f e c t th a t
e n u m e r a tio n s d if f e r ) , c o r r e s p o n d in g to th e 2 0 o c c u r r e n c e s o f th e
w o r d " " = w o e , in I s a ia h ,
o r to th e 2 2 le tte r s o f th e H e b r e w
a lp h a b e t 1 2 W h e th e r th e r e is a n y s ig n if ic a n c e in th is o r n o t,
it
c a n , I th in k , b e s c a r c e ly f o r tu ito u s th a t a s a g a in s t th e p a tr is tic
r e f e r e n c e o f th e P s a lm
to J e s u s , w e f in d th a t th e M id r a s h
to
th e P s a lm e la b o r a te s 5 c o m p le te e x e g e s e s , in te r p r e tiu g e a c h d e ta il
in it a s a p p r o p r ia te
s e lf a ' p a tr is tic
f o r a J e w is h
to a J e w is h b ib lic a l h e r o : ( 1 ) A d a m ,
h im -
f ig u r e o f C h r is t, a n d p e r h a p s a n o b v io u s c h o ic e
r e p ly
to c la im s m a d e b y
b e h a lf o f th e s e c o n d A d a m . ( 2 ) N o a h ,
C h r is tia n e x e g e s is o n
a ls o a ty p e o f C h r is t
in th e F a th e r s . ( 3 ) A b r a h a m ,
a f ig u r e o f C h r is t, w h o m e d ita te d
in th e T o r a h d a y a n d n ig h t -
ta u g h t, a s R. S a m u e l b . N a h m a n i
p o in te d o u t
in
th e la te
3 r d c e n tu r y ',
by
n e ith e r f a tb e r n o r
te a c h e r , b u t b y a c h a n n e l o f r e v e la tio n m ir a c u lo u s ly c o n tr iv e d
w ith in h im b y G o d . ( 4 ) T h e
T r ib e
o f L e v i,
1 · C o m m e n te z io li
in Psalm os (Anecdota
and 'I 'r e c te b u a de P a a lm is (ibid. 2, p - 2).
e M idrash Psalm s, ed.Buber, f.5a.
3 Ibid"
p. 7 a.
w h o w a lk e d n o t
M a r e d s o la n e .,
Ill,
1. p. 5),
M id ra a h im
and Patristic Exegesis of the Bible
501
in th e c o u n s e l o f th e u n g o d ly w h e n th e g e n e ra tio n o f th e w ild e rn e s s a p o s ta tis e d
to w o rs h ip th e g o ld e n c a lf (m ig h t th is p e rh a p s
b e a n o b liq u e c o u n te rp a rt to th e te m p ta tio n in th e w ild e rn e s s 1 ).
A nd
fin a lly
o f th e ir
(5 ) th e
Sons
o f K o ra h ,
w h o s a t n o t in th e s e a t
s c o rn fu l a n d c y n ic a l fa th e r, ;" h e n h e c o n d u c te d a p ro p a -
ganda
c a m p a ig n a g a in s t M o s e s a n d A a ro n b y d is s e m in a tin g a
s to ry
o f a w id o w e d w o m a n a n d h e r tw o d a u g h te rs , ro b b e d o f
her
a ll
by
to
th e q u ite e x c e s s iv e ly rig o ro u s c la im s m a d e o n h e r,
p rie s tly in te re s t, b y ra b b in ic la w . It is s c a rc e ly p o s s ib le
in th e
fa il
to
re c o g n is e in th is s e c tio n a p a ro d y o f P a u lin e a n ti-
n o m ia n is m ,
It is
tru e th a t n o t a ll o f th e s e a n d s im ila r in s ta n c e s c a n s u s ta in
a c la im
o n b e h a lf o f th e S y n a g o g u e to p re s e n t a p o s itiv e c o u n te r-
e x e g e s is
to
te n d e n c y
of
th a t
o f th e C h u rc h . B u t th e e s s e n tia lly p o s itiv e
s e e m s to m e to b e in g e u e ra l b o rn e o u t. T h e d e p th
C h ris t.ia n
e x e g e s is
s p iritu a l e x p e rie n c e , a s re fle c te d in th e b ib lic a l
w h ic h th e C h u rc h d is s e m in a te d w ith e x c lu s iv e c la im s
a s to
its
e g e te
in to
fin d in g
v a lid ity , s e e m s o fte n to h a v e s p u rre d th e J e w is h e x lo o k in g a fre s h fo r e q u iv a le n t s p iritu a l w e a lth , a n d
it a n e w w ith in th e te rm s o f re fe re n c e o f h is o w n o ld e r
d is p e n s a tio n
Is ra e l.
-
R e v e la tio n th ro u g h T o ra h , a n d th e c h o ic e o f
If, in th e re flo w e rin g o f ra b b in ic e x e g e s is w h ic h b e g a n
a
le s s
to w a rd s
th e c lo s e o f th e firs t m ille n iu m , w e o fte n fin d
p o s itiv e ,
a n d in d e e d s o m e tim e s o v e rtly a n ti-C h ris tia n a p o lo g e tic ,
w e m u s t, I th in k , a c c o u n t fo r it to s o m e e x te n t in th e a tm o s p h e re
o f th e
tim e s ; th e s u ffe rin g s o f th e J e w is h c o m m u n itie s , e s p e c i-
a lly th o s e
o f th e
o f N o rth e rn F ra n c e a n d th e R h in e la n d w h e re m a n y
o u ts ta n d in g
J e w is h d o c to rs liv e d , a t th e h a n d s o f th e
crusaders: and also the renewed religious disputations, in most
c a s e s fo rc e d u p o n th e J e w s , th e v e ry p ro c e d u re o f w h ic h w a s
g e n e ra lly
In
s p ite
a rra n g e d s o a s to th ro w th e J e w s o n th e d e fe n s iv e .
o f th e g ro w in g a w a re n e s s o f th e re le v a n c e o f J e w is h
b ib lic a l e x e g e s is w h ic h b e g a n to m a n ife s t its e lf in s o m e C h ris tia n
s c h o o ls fro m th e 1 2 th c e n tu ry , C h ris tia n e x e g e te s c o u ld ra re ly ,
if ever, exclude from their minds a conviction that an exegesis
th a t
w a s n o t c h ris to lo g ic a l c o u ld n o t b e s p iritu a l; a n d th is p re -
ju d ic e
le d th e m to th e fa lla c y o f lu m p in g to g e th e r a ll J e w is h
502
R .L o E W E
interpretation of the Bible as "literal" r a tiv e
sen se
m ig h t
in
-
w h a te v e r
any
g iv e n
asp ect
case
be
o f th e
generally in a pejo-
sen se
concerned
to
th e
J e w is h
expound.
e x e g e te
W hereas
on the one hand Tertullian says that omnes pene Psalmi Christi
personam 8ustinent 1 , o n t h e o t h e r t h e e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e p l a i n
m e a n in g
th e
o f th e te x t
Jew s on
th e
is e x e g e s is
grounds
th a t
more judaico;
and
J u s tin
charges
vIlE"i,; navra C1a!2"'('xw~ vevo1]xare2.
This brings m e to the second part of m y paper. A com parison
of the exegetical m ethodology of Church and Synagogue m ay
e n a b le
us
to
see
how
e c c le s ia s tic a l
c o n c lu s io n s
as
to
s p ir itu a l
shallow ness in the rabbinic treatm ent of the text receive som e
colour if traditional Jew ish and Christian exegesis be superficially juxtaposed, although a positive understanding of the
te r m s
of
r e fe r e n c e
w ith in
w h ic h
J e w is h
e x e g e s is
o p e r a te s,
and
of w hat w e m ay term its m echanics - not least, H ebrew psychology as reflected in language and legend - m ight have brought
p a tr is tic
and
s c h o la s tic
c r itic is m
to a m o r e
a p p r e c ia tiv e
a ttitu d e
tow ards w hat the Jew s w ere trying to say. Let us, then, sum m arise the axiom s of bihlical theology from w hich the exegesis
of Church and Synagogue proceeded, and the respective principles of exegesis w hich form their corrollaries.
For the Christian,
the H ebrew Bible is but the O ld Testas a v e f o r t h e M areionite,
but as
foreshadow ing the N ew and finding therein its factual and em otional com pletion. The career of Jesus of N azareth is believed
m e n t;
in d is p e n s a b le
to h a v e u sh ered
in d e e d ;
in th e m e s s ia n ic
e r a ; a n d r e je c tio n
o f h is m e s s ia n ic
status can be due only to ignorance or, in the case of Jew ry
w hich has had the opportunity to see, to purblindness. The
endeavour of the Church M ilitant w ill ultim ately bring about
the m essianic fulfilm ent of the second com ing. The Church,
faced w ith the task of expounding the relevance of the script u r a l m essag~f o r a l l f a c e t s o f t h i s c o n v i c t i o n
a s to its o w n n a tu r e ,
task, and destiny, evolved a fonrfold division of biblical exegesis w hich w as, perhaps first form ulated as such by W alafrid
1 A dv. P r a x e a m
1 1 ( C B E L 2 0 , p. 2 4 4 . )
, D ial. 14, 2 (A rcham beulf
1, p. 64).
M id ra s h im
a n d P a t r is t ic
E x e g e s is
503
o f t h e B ib le
S tra b o ' . T h is a rra n g e m e n t se ts o n o n e sid e th e lite ra l se n se ,
a n d o n th e o th e r th e th re e ty p ic a l se n se s fe lt, b ro a d ly sp e a k in g ,
to b e ra n g e d a g a in st it. T h e lite ra l
se n se in c lu d e s a ll th a t w a s
a c tu a lly a n d im m e d ia te ly in te n d e d b y th e w rite r, w ith o u t re g a rd
to in fe re n c e s w h ic h th e re a d e r m ig h t d ra w fro m le g itim a te o b s e r v a t io n s , a llo w a n c e n a t u r a lly b e in g m a d e f o r t h e e x ig e n c ie s
o f la n g u a g e -
m e ta p h o r, sim ile a n d p a ra b le , e tc . U n d e r th e
sa m e h e a d in g is to b e in c lu d e d th e a c c o m o d a tio n o f a te x t e ith e r e x te n siv e , b y a p p ly in g th e w o rd s in th e ir o rig in a l se n se
to a su b je c t o th e r th a n th a t m e n tio n e d in th e m , o r a llu siv e , b y
a p p ly in g t h e s a m e v e r b a l e x p r e s s io n s in a n e w d ir e c t io n , p r o -
v id e d th a t th e la tte r b e n o t a b su rd , i, e . sa tiric a l.
A s a g a in st th is, th e ty p ic a l
sp iritu a l
-
se n se -
a lso c a lle d m y stic a l o r
a lth o u g h it is lik e w ise c la im e d to b e c o n v e y e d b y
th e te x t a c tu a lly , is n o t c o n v e y e d b y it im m e d ia te ly : e v e n a s
th e w o rd s o f th e te x t a re sy m b o ls c o n v e y in g th e lite ra l se n se ,
so is th e lite ra l se n se itse lf a sy m b o l c o n v e y in g th e sp iritu a l.
T h e fe a tu re o f a te x t w h ic h d e sig n a te s it a ty p e , o r sy m b o l fo r
so m e sp iritu a l tru th (its a n tity p e ), m a y b e c irc n m sta n tia l ra th e r
th a n in h e re n t; th u s, th e a b se n c e o f a g e n e a lo g y fo r M e lc h iz e d e k
in G e n e sis 1 4 m a k e s o f h im , in th e E p istle to th e H e b re w s 7 ,3 ,
a ty p e o f Je su s -
" w ith o u t fa th e r, w ith o u t m o th e r, w ith o u t
g e n e a lo g y " . A c c o rd in g , th e re fo re , a s to w h e th e r th e a n tity p e to
w h ic h a te x t te stifie s is a tru th
to b e b e lie v e d , a b o o n to b e
h o p e d fo r, o r a v irtu e to b e p ra c tise d , th e ty p ic a l se n se su b d iv id e s in to th e a lle g o ric a l, th e a n a g o g ic a l, a n d th e tro p o lo g ic a l
o r m o ra l. A s re g a rd s O ld T e sta m e n t
g o r ic a l
sen se
m ean s,
te x ts a t le a st, th e a lle -
e f f e c t iv e ly ,
p r o p h e t ic
in t e r p r e t a t io n ,
in a sm u c h a s fo r C h ristia n ity th e m a in o b je c t o f fa ith in th e O ld
T e s t a m e n t c e n t r e s r o u n d m e s s ia n is m a s b e lie v e d t o b e r e a lis e d
1
P r o th e m a ta
D e u t ilit a t e
e x e g e t ic a l
(In
3
6,
PL
O r ig e n , w h o p o s t u la t e d
2 2 , p . 3 1 2 f .;
it
(5 ) (C S E L
( P L lI 3 ,
6 3 B ).
2 5 , p . 7 ),
B u t c f A u g u s t in e ,
r e f e r r in g t o a f o u r f o ld
s c h e m e ( h is t o r ic a l, a e t io lo g ic a l, a n a lo g ic a l, a lle g o r ic a l) . B e d e
L e v it ic u m
b o r a te d
o rd in a ria e
g lo s s a e
credendi
91,
of Jerom e,
s y s t e m a t ic a lly .
l'I n t e llig e n c e
d 'E c r it u r e
343 A )
s t ill
know s
o f t h r e e s e n s e s o n ly .
a t h r e e f o ld s e n s e ( D e p r in c ip iis I V 2 , 4 ,
E p is t .
See
d 'a p re s
120, 12, C SE L
H enri
de
O ngene,
5 5 , 5 1 3 f .) ,
never
L u b e c , H is t o ir e e t
1960, P. 141.
GCS
e la -
E s p r it :
R.
504
LOEW E
in C h r is t a n d h is C h u r c h . T h u s , a lle g o r ic a lly , J e r u s a le m
s ta n d f o r th e C h u r c h M ilita n t. T h e a n a g o g ic a l
th e f a ith
a n d h o p e o f th e
C h r is tia n
th e r e f o r e , ty p if ie s a n a g o g ic a lly th e
tr o p o lo g ic a l
C o m m lin ity ;
C h u rc h
can
s e n s e c o m p r is e s
J e r u s a le m ,
T r iu m p h a n t.
The
s e n s e c o v e r s a ll m o r a l im p lic a tio n s o f th e te x t
a s a c o d e f o r c o n d u c t, s o th a t
tr o p o lo g ic a lly to in d ic a te
J e r u s a le m
m a y b e u n d e r s to o d
tb e ju s t s o u l. T h e w h o le c o n te n t o f
sc r ip tu r a l e x e g e sis m a y th e r e fo r e b e su b su m e d in L y r e 's tw o lin e
su m m a r y ,
Littera gesta docet; quid credos, allegoria;
Morali«, quid agas: quo tendas, anagogia,
th e s u c c in c tn e s s o f w h ic h m a y p e r h a p s e x c u s e its lib e r tie s w ith
L a tin q u a n tity .
It
is e s s e n tia l to b e a r in
m in d th e d e e p - s e a te d c o n tr a s t b e -
tw e e n th e lite r a l a n d th e th r e e s p ir itu a l s e n s e s th a t b e c a m e tr a d itio n a l in th e C h u r c h , p a r tic u la r ly
A s w ill a p p e a r s h o r tly ,
a s th e h e r ita g e o f G r e g o r y .
it w a s o n ly in p a r t o f f s e t b y H u g h o f
S t V ic to r 's n e w e n u n c ia tio n , th a t lin k e d th e lite r a l, i. e . h is to r ic a l
s e n s e to th e a lle g o r ic a l, w ith k n o w le d g e a s th e o b je c t o f b o th ,
a s a g a in s t th e tr o p o lo g ic a l s e n s e w h ic h h a s a s its o b je c t v ir tu e .
T h is 'r e a r r a n g e m e n t
a p p r e c ia te
caused
s ig n if ic a n tly
in
th e
th e
s to c k o f th e lite r a l s e n s e to
1 2 th c e n tu r y ,
n a tu r a l c o n se q u e n c e th e r e a sse ssm e n t
a n d h a d ,a s its
o f th e im p o r ta n c e o f
J e w is h b ib lic a l e x e g e s is , a n d its c u ltiv a tio n b y th e V ic to r in e s c h o la r s . It d id n o t, h o w e v e r , p r e d is p o s e th e m to e x p e c t a n y a s s is ta n c e f r o m th e J e w is h c o m m e n ta to r s e x c e p t o n th e lite r a l p la n e ,
o r sa v e th e m fr o m m isc o n str u in g su c h a ssista n c e w h e n it w a s
in f a c t f o r th c o m in g , th o u g h e x p r e s s e d in f o r m s a n d c a te g o r ie s
o f th o u g h t
w h ic h
d e e p e r s tu d y th a n
T h e f u r th e s t th a t
th e y
c o u ld n o t a s s im ila te w ith o u t
th e y w o u ld h a v e b e e n p r e p a r e d to c o n c e d e .
th e y s e e m to g o is w h e n th e y r e p r o d u c e , a s ,
f o r in s ta n c e d o e s H e r b e r t o f E o s h a m
1,
.I e w is h m a te r ia l a lle g e d ly
lite r a l, b u t in f a c t r ic h ly a g g a d ic , in q u a n titie s
1
a m uch
s e e m in g ly o u t
O n H e r b e r t's r a b b in ic s c h o la r s h ip s e e B . S m a lle y , R e c h e r c h e s
A n c ie n n e e t M e d ie v a le
1 8 (1 9 5 1 ) 2 9 f., a n d T h e S tu d y
'I 'h e o lo g ie
p h e B ib le in th e M id d le A g e s ,
3 4 (1 9 5 3 ) p . 4 4 [.
de
of
2 n d e d . 1 9 5 2 , p . 1 8 6 £ . R . L o e w e , B ib lic a
Midrashim and Patristic Exegesis of the Bible
505
o f a ll p r o p o r tio n to th e ir o w n f u n d a m e n ta l c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e
te x t.
Y e t b e h in d th is s u p e r e r o g a to r y p ilin g u p o f e x c e r p ts f r o m
R ashi
and
th e M id r a s h th e r e lu r k s , p e r h a p s , a f e e lin g w h ic h
th e C h r is tia n e x e g e te w o u ld n o t h a v e a c k n o w le d g e d , th a t " th e r e
m ust
b e s o m e th in g in it, a f te r a ll" .
A lo n g s id e th is , le t u s s e t a n a n a ly s is o f th e e x e g e tic a l p r in c ip le s
o f th e
R a b b is , w h ic h r e s t u p o n th e a x io m th a t th e c h a n n e l o f
d iv in e
R e v e la tio n
th e
in s p ir e d
not
e x p lic itly
hum an
is T o r a h -
T o r a h a s e x p lic itly s e t f o r th in
te x t o f th e B ib le , b u t a ls o , in r e g a r d to a n y th in g
f o u n d th e r e in , d e d u c ib le b y th e a p p lic a tio n o f
r e a s o n to th a t
a c k n o w le d g e s
te x t, p r o v id e d o n ly th a t h u m a n r e a s o n
its d e p e n d e n c e u p o n d iv in e g r a c e . D e v o tio n to
th e s tu d y o f th e W r itte n a n d O r a l T o r a h b e c o m e s , c o n s e q u e n tly ,
f o r th e J e w , h is s u p r e m e d u ty : in th a t b y le a r n in g th r o u g h T o r a h
m o re
o f th e d iv in e p la n f o r th e ,,6 < 1 /,0 , h e e q u ip s h im s e lf th e
b e tte r
to c o o p e r a te w ith th a t p la n , a n d b y th u s e n te r in g in to
p a r tn e r s h ip
c lim a x
w ith
G od can
o f h is to r y -
p r o m o te its
p r o g r e s s to w a r d s th e
th e m e s s ia n ic e r a a n d ' th e w o r ld to c o m e .
T h is c o n c e p tio n o f R e v e la tio n is r e f le c te d , a s it s e e m s to m e ,
in
th e
f u n d a m e n ta l
c h a r a c te r
o f a ll r a b b in ic e x e g e s is . T o r a h
being viewed essentially as a process, its divine, initiating end
and its human, receiving end have their counterparts in two
c a r d in a l
p r in c ip le s o f e x e g e s is e n u n c ia te d in th e 2 n d c e n tu r y o f
th e c o m m o n e r a . O n e , s tr e s s e d b y R . " A k ib a , p o in ts to th e in s p ir e d
q u a lity o f th e te x t, a s s e r tin g th a t
n o jo t o r tittle
in it
c a n b e w ith o u t s ig n if ic a n c e f o r d e d u c tio n a l e x e g e s is : lh e o th e r ,
Ish m a e l
b . E lis h a 's in s is te n c e th a t th e T o r a h s p e a k s in h u m a n
la n g u a g e . T h e h e a lth o f r a b b in ic e x e g e s is , a n d in d e e d o f J u d a is m
in
g e n e r a l,
e q u ip o is e
th e
'is d e p e n d e n t
o n th e
m a in te n a n c e
b e tw e e n th e s e tw o p r in c ip le s . F u r th e r ,
s tu d y
of a
o f T o r a h b e in g k n o w le d g e o f a n d c o o p e r a tio n w ith
G o d , th e im p lic a tio n s o f th e te x t w ith r e g a r d to c o n d u c t
w h ic h
_
-
th a t
in C h r is tia n te r m s o n e w o u ld c a ll th e tr o p o lo g ic a l s e n s e
te n d
to r e c e iv e p r id e o f p la c e . F a ith
m e s s ia n is m
ceded
new
te n s io n a l
th e o b je c t o f
in G o d , T o r a h , a n d
b e in g p r e s u p p o s e d , a n d J u d a is m
h a v in g n o s u p e r -
c o v e n a n t to r e in te r p r e t f u n d a m e n ta lly in th e lig h t o f a
d is p e n s a tio n , th e f u n c tio n o f a lle g o r y is q u ite d if f e r e n t in
506
R.LoEWE
J u d a is m fro m its fu n c tio n in C h ris tia n ity ; b ro a d ly s p e a k in g , it
is g e a re d to tro p o lo g y , to th e in te rp re ta tio n
in s titu tio n a l fe a tu re s o f th e W ritte n
o f th e c u Itic a n d
T o ra h , to a c t a s a n o v e r-
d r iv e , s o t o s p e a k ; a s , f o r in s t a n c e , in t h e u s e t o w h ic h i t is p u t
b y P h ilo . A n d w h e re a s m e s s ia n ic a s p ira tio n fa ith
-
is n e v e r a b s e n t
fro m
ra b b in ic
a s d is tin c t fro m
th in k in g ,
th e R a b b is
d e p re c a te d o v e rm u c h d w e llin g o n it b e c a u s e o f th e m e n ta l a n d
e m o tio n a l in s ta b ility , b o th in d iv id u a l a n d c o m m u n a l, to w h ic h
it w a s lia b le to g iv e ris e . T h u s it is th a t
th e a n a g o g ic a l s e n s e
r a r e ly r e c e iv e s s e p a r a t e f o r m a l t r e a t m e n t s a v e f r o m la t e , e s c h a t o -
lo g ic a l c o m m e n ta to rs , w h ile o n th e o th e r h a n d s c a rc e ly a s in g le
ra b b in ic a l e x p o s itio n o f a n y
te x t
c o u ld c o n c lu d e w ith o u t
th e
d e ft in tro d u c tio n in to th e e x e g e s is o f a n o te o f m e s s ia n ic h o p e
a s a c o n tra s t to th e s u ffe rin g s o f Is ra e l in th e c o u rs e o f h is p re s e n t
m e s s ia n ic e n d e a v o u r , t h e c o u n t e r p a r t in J u d a is m t o t h e C h r is t ia n
c o n c e p tio n o f th e C h u rc h M ilita n t.
It is
n o t to b e th o u g h t th a t p re o c c u p a tio n w ith th e p ra c tic a l
im p lic a t io n s f o r m o r a l c o n d u c t p ro d u c e d
c lu s iv e ly w ith th e in s titu tio n a l
e x e g e s is c o n c e r n e d e x -
a u d ritu a l re q u ire m e n ts o f th e
J e w is h la w b o th p riv a te a n d p u b lic , i. e . Halakhah, to th e n e g le c t
o f s tu d y o f th e th e o lo g ic a l s a n c tio n b e h in d th e m o f G o d , a n d H is
r e la t io n s h ip
'Aggada. It s o h a p p e n s
th e n a tu re
t o c r e a t io n , m a n , a n d I s r a e l,
th a t o u r o ld e s t s u rv iv in g
th e ta n n a itic p e rio d , a re h a la k h ic -
midrashim,
i. e .
fro m
a fa c t p ro b a b ly e x p la in e d
b y h is to ijic a l c irc u m s ta n c e s a ris in g o u t o f th e d e s tru c tio n o f th e
T e m p le a n d th e s u p p re s s io n o f th e s ta te . W e h a v e a c o n s id e ra b le
b o d y o f a g g a d ic e x e g e s is , in
th e fo rm
of
obiter dicta,
fro m
th e s a m e p e rio d . It is s ig n ific a n t th a t th e s o u rc e o f th e fo llo w in g
c ita tio n is its e lf a h a la k h ic m id ra s h ': " S tu d e n ts
a re a c c u s to m e d to s a y ,
'If
o f th e ' A g g a d a
th o u w o u ld s t c o m e to re c o g n is e th e
c h a ra c te r o f H im th a t s p o k e a n d th e w o rld c a m e in to e x is te n c e ,
le a rn 'A g g a d a ; fo r th e re b y
w ilt th o u
c o m e to re c o g n is e ' H is
c h a ra c te r a n d c le a v e to H is w a y s ' " . T o p o in t th e in te rd e p e n d e n c e o f H a la k h a h
a n d 'A g g a d a , a n d th e m is c o n s tru c tio n o f
J u d a is m th a t r e s u lts fr o m o v e r -c o n c e n tr a tio n o n o r is o la tio n
1
S ifre ,
'E k e b h
§ 4 9 (o n
D e n t. II,
2 2 ; F in k e ls te in
p . 1 1 5 ).
M idrashim
and Patristic Exegesis of the Bible
507
of either of them , a better exam ple could scarcely be fouud than
this passage and its context.
So far I have been concerned with the character of rabbinic
exegesis and have spoken only of its broadest divisions; although
for convenience I have correlated its aspects with the four
senses recognised in the exegesis of the Church. Before I turn
to the m ore form al categorisation, for what it is worth - and
som e understanding of the pattern of Jewish exegesis is essential,
if we wish to see how it cam e that the Fathers m isconstrued
it - it is perhaps desirable to enter a caution with regard to
the necessity to be constantly rem inding ourselves of the difference between the categories and m odes of thought of the languages of the W est and those of Hebrew. Hebrew, avoiding
abstract term s and tolerating them only to the extent that they
palpably reflect verbal concepts, will generally attem pt to express spiritual truth in term s of concrete exam ple - a legend
woven round som e biblical hero, or a definite aspect' of the personality of God: rem inding itself from tim e to tim e, in the latter
connection, that anthropom orphic language can be used but
hom onym ously with reference to the Deity. This feature of
Hebrew linguistic psychology, com bined with the apparently
exaggerated significance attached by the Rabbis to textual
minutiae, was liable to mislead ecclesiastical writers, brought
up on the abstract vocabulary of Latin and Greek, into dism issing
Jewish exegesis as absurdly literal or even childish. If we are
attem pting to look for a parallel to patristic exegesis in the
Rabbis or vice versa, we are unlikely to find it if we glance superficially from the com m entaries of one to those of the other and
expect to find identical or even form ally sim ilar m ateriaL If,
however, we are prepared to breakdown the categories in which
the one side presents the thought which we would seek in the
other, and having grasped its essential m eaning, to recreate it
in categories appropriate to the language and faith which we
wish to exam ine, we m ay perhaps not be disappointed.
Judaism , like Christianity, knows of a fourfold division of
exegesis; but it was not form ulated until the 13th century,
independently, it seem s, by Bahya ibn Asher and by the author
508
R.
LOEW E
o f th e Z o h a r. T h is fo u rfo ld in te rp re ta tio n
is a sso c ia te d w ith th e
w o rd pardes,
i. e . g a rd e n , p a ra d ise , a lth o u g h B a h y a ib n A sb e r
does
th e
not
regard
u se
te r m ,
and
it a s a m n e m o n ic .
th e
Z ohar,
w h ic h
N e v e r th e le s s ,
does
fo u r
its
1,
does
le tte r s
are
not
in
fa c t th e in itia ls o f th e w o rd s th a t d e sc rib e th e fo u r se n se s: n a m e ly
peshas - stra ig h tfo rw a rd se n se - derash - a p p lie d se n se remez - a llu siv e se n se - a n d sodh - m y stic a l se n se . It m a y
b e n o te d th a t th e c o m b in a tio n o f th e in itia ls o f th e se te rm s to
fo rm th e w o rd pardes in v e rts th e o rd e r o f th e m id d fe tw o , derosh,
th e a p p lie d se n se , a n d remez,
th e a llu siv e . A tte m p ts
to c a rry
b a c k th is fo u rfo ld c la ssific a tio n to th e u se o f th e te rm pardes
a s m e a n in g m y s tic a l a n d c o s m o lo g ic a l s p e c u la tio n , in w h ic h s e n s e
it
o cco u rs
in
ta n n a itic
lite r a tu r e ,
th e d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n
cannot
be
s u s ta in e d .
In d eed ,
remez, t h e a l l u s i v e , a n d sodh, t h e m y s t i c
s e n s e is n o t p r e c is e , a n d th e d iffe r e n tia tio n b e tw e e n th e tw o m a y
h a v e b e e n in tro d u c e d in o rd e r to a c h ie v e fo u r title s to se t b e sid e
th e fo u r C h ristia n te rm s. A t le a st, B a h y a ib n A sh e r su b su m e s
~';, w h ile h is th ird ,
th e m b o th u n d e r h is fo u rth se n se , ~ ,~ p "
p h ilo so p h ic a l e x e g e sis, d o e s n o t o c c u r in th e Z o h a r a t a ll. In
any
c a se , fo r p r e se n t
p u rp oses
w e m ay
c o n v e n ie n tly
ig n o r e
th e
fo u rfo ld d iv isio n , sin c e it is n o t fo u n d in e x e g e tic a l w o rk s stu d ie d
b y p a tristic a n d m e d ia e v a l C h ristia n w rite rs. T h e iso la tio n o f a
m y stic a l se n se sc a rc e ly b e g in s b e fo re th e 1 2 th c e n tu ry , a n d its
fu ll flo w e rin g , in th e Z o h a r, b e g a n to b e th e o b je c t o f C h ristia n
stu d y o n ly w ith th e 1 5 th . E c h o e s o f th e p h ilo so p h ic a l M id ra sh ,
in th e fo rm o f q u o ta tio n s fro m M a im o n id e s' Guide to the Perplexed a re fo u n d in tro d u c e d in to a n e x e g e tic a l c o n te x t p e rh a p s
fo r th e first tim e in th e c o m m e n ta ry to th e p sa lte r b y th e E n g lish
D o m in ic a n N ic h o la s T riv e th , w h o d ie d in 1 3 2 8 . W e m a y , th e re fo re , re stric t o u rse lv e s h e re to th e d istin c tio n b e tw e e n th e peshai,
o r p la in se n se , a n d derash; th e a p p lie d .
T h e d istin c tio n b e tw e e n th e tw o w a s flrst m a d e in B a b y lo n ia
in th e 4 th c e n tu ry , w h e re th e te rm peshat
w a s first u se d , b u t
it m a y h a v e b e e n u n d e rsto o d e a rlie r. A p p ro x im a te ly sp e a k in g ,
1
Cf
n,
9 1 )a - b
(im p lic itly );
e x p lic itly ,
i s f r o m t h e B a 'y e , M e h e m e n a , a n d n o t
M a jo r T r e n d s
in J e w i s h
M y s tic is m ,
III,
llO a ,
b u t th is p a -s s a g e
t h e Z o h a r i t s e l f ( s e e G . S c h c le m ,
S rd
e d .,
p.
4 0 0 , n . 1 5 ).
M id r a s h im a n d P a t r is t ic
th e
d e fin itio n
h o ld
good
F ro m
g iv e n a b o v e
fo r
th e
o f t h e B ib le
fo r th e C h ris tia n
H e b re w
(o r ra th e r
B a b y lo n ia , to o , c a m e
se rv a n c e
E x e g e s is
th e
509
lite ra l s e n s e w o u ld
A ra m a ic )
fu n d a m e n ta l
pesluu,
te rm
p rin c ip le th e o b -
o f w h ic h o u g h t to k e e p a ll ra b b in ic e x e g e s is o n a n e v e n
k e e l, th a t w h a te v e r a p p lie d u s e b e m a d e o f th e te x t fo r h o m ile tic
or
e x e g e tic a l
p u rp o s e s , th e
te x t
m e a n in g
( 1 0 1 0 1 1 '; '~
how ever,
w a s to so m e e x te n t
its e lf c a n
I l ' P ~ ) '1 1 )
1 l~ 1 '
1.
T h is
never
lo s e its
e s s e n tia l
p la in
ra tio n a lis m ,
o f f s e t b y t h e c ir c u m s t a n c e
t o w h ic h
re fe re n c e h a s a lre a d y b e e n m a d e , th a t fo r th e R a b b is th e h u la k h ic
in te rp re ta tio n ,
t o c u lt ic
and
th a t
is th e
im p lic a tio n s o f th e
a n d le g a l in s t it u t io n s ,
th e
n e e d to re la te
th e
s o c ia l c u s to m in tim a te ly
te x t
w ith
w as of param ount
re g a rd
im p o rta n c e :
c o m p le x o f J e w is h c e re m o n ia l a n d
to th e b ib lic a l te x t, th e h is to ric a l c a u s e s
fo r w h ic h c a n n o t b e e n la rg e d u p o n h e re , w a s s till fe lt b y
to
be
a
v ita l
o n e , th o u g h
p o s s ib ly w ith
th e m
le s s ju s tific a tio n
th a n
h a d b e e n th e c a s e in th e e a rly d e c a d e s o f th e p h a ris a ic m o v e m e n t.
T h e re w a s , c o n s e q u e n tly ,
a te n d e n c y to re g a rd th e w o rd
t h e p la in s e n s e , a s if i t m e a n t t h e m o s t s ig n if ic a n
m e a n t,
w herever
m a tte rs
lik e th e
its h a la k h ic
in r a b b i n i c
it
is
e x e g e s is
e g e te s
th e re
w o u ld
not
m a tte r s,
or
t h e o r e t ic a lly
w e re m e n tio n e d
p r a c t ic a l
in th e
te x t,
s ig n ific a n c e . T h u s , if it w o u ld b e u n fa ir to s a y th a t
n o t u n fa ir
A b ra h a m
p r a c t ic a l
s a c rific ia l s y s te m
peshat,
t s e n s e ; w h ic h
r a t io n a lis m
to s a y th a t
w a s o fte n
a llo w
ib n
fre e
E z ra ,
an
is t h e h a n d m a id
e v e n fo r th e
a rb itra ry
re in
to
th e ir
h im s e lf a
of canon
la w ,
m o s t ra tio n a lis t o f e x -
p o in t b e y o n d
ra tio n a lis m .
s ta n d a rd -b e a re r
w h ic h th e y
For
e x a m p le
o f ra tio n a lis m ,
b o g g le s a t th e la w o f th e life -lo n g s la v e in E x o d u s 2 1 , 6 , o f w h o m
th e
te x t
C ~ 1 i '~
s a y s th a t
,.,:J:s7"
h is n a tu ra l
ta r g u m
e v e r",
th e
life . J e w is h
m e a n in g
fo r e v e r " ,
to
till th e
t h is
verse,
ju b ile e
B a b y lo n ia n
is
"fo r
i. e .
th e
te rm
fo r th e
te r m
re n d e rin g
in t e r p r e t s
year
o f 0 '1 1 7 l e a v e s n o d o u b t t h a t
c o n te x t
c o m m e n ta to rs ,
1
up
h im
la w , e m b o d ie d in th e
p se u d o -J o n a th a n
as
o c c u rre n c e
in
a f te r h is e a r h a s b e e n p ie r c e d b y h is m a s te r ,.
" h e s h a ll s e r v e
of
o f th e
0 7 ;" :7 , " fo r
o n ly . T h e fre q u e n t
th e m e a n in g in te n d e d
o f h is life " :
but
th e
s ta n d a rd
in c lu d in g Ib n E z ra , b y a d d u c in g re fe re n c e s s o m e
T a lm u d
Y e b a m o th
24 a.
R.
510
L O E W E
of w hich the H alakhah interprets analogously to the present
one, declare that 07177here actually m eans till the jubilee year'.
A t the sam e tim e, the cultivation of the pesha! has, as an
exegetical trend, a history as im portant in Judaism as that of
the A ntiochene School in Christianity, and it is necessary to
understand its developm ents and chronology in order to be
able to correlate it w ith m ediaeval Christian interest in rabbinic
exegesis. The .older M idrashim , w hich are anthologies of the exe g e tic a l r e m a r k s o r s e r m o n s o f in d iv id u a l
r a b b is o r s c h o o ls , w e r e
not concerned to isolate the pesha! from derash, or applied
m eaning of the text; their com pilers w ere interested only in
separating halakhic exegesis, that is the m ainly practical deducton, from the M idrash 'A ggada, as covering m oral im plications, allegory, history, legend, m yth, and theology; w ith the
result that in the aggadic M idrashim sober sim ile and rational
explanation jostle w ith fantastic im agination, rhetorical exaggeration, and thaum aturgy.
The cult of rationalistic exegesis starts w ith Sa'adiah in
Babylonia, at the beginning of the lO th century; after his death
the m ovem ent passed to K airouan and thence to Spain, reaching
Provence in the 12th. It w as stim ulated originally by the need
to
fin d a
c o n s tr u c tiv e
a n sw e r to
th e k a r a itic s e c e s s io n w h ic h ,
in its endeavour to get back to the Bible, jettisoned the authority
of rabbinic tradition as em bodied in the Talm ud and broke aw ay
to form an independent puritan com m unity. The grow th of a
Jew ish philosophy of religion, and the im pact of A ristotelian
science through A rabic sources, contributed pow erfully to the
. tr e n d to w a r d s
r a tio n a lis m
in
e x e g e s is ,
p a r tic u la r ly
s in c e
it w a s
being prosecuted w ithin the A rabic-speaking section of Jew ry
- precisely as the new A ristotle contributed to, or possibly
stim ulated the Christian reaction against allegorical exegesis
w hich began in France in the 12th century, and w hich brought
Christian scholars to the consideration of the exegetical aid
w hich the Jew s could furnish. But it w as not the Jew ish exegesis to w hich referencehas just been m ade that they found on
1 See
m y
a r tic le
(c ite d
above
.p-
499
n o te
7)
p.
278.
Midrashim and Patristic Exegesis of the Bible
511
their doorstep w hen they invoked the aid of local Jew s. A lthough
the Jew s of N orthern France did have som e know ledge of
Sa'adiah, the exegetical, gram m atical, and lexicographical literature produced by Jew s w ho w rote in A rabic rem ained alm ost
a closed book to them , until know ledge of this literature w as
spread by the com m entaries of A braham ibn. E zra, w hich w ere
w ritten in H ebrew ; Ibn E zra, w ho travelled from his native
Spain through E urope, died in 1167. Ibn E zra's exegesis, and
that of D avid K im hi in the next generation but one, did not
noticeably im pinge upon the C hristian w orld until they w ere
utilised by a Jew ish apostate, Paul, A rchbishop of B urgos, in
his additions to the Postillae of L yre, at the end of the 14th
century.
N evertheless, the scholars of 12th century Paris did not turn
in vain to their Jew ish com patriots. Independently of the Jew ish
philosophic-rationalist school there had developed another rationalistic exegesis am ongst Jew s w ho w rote in H ebrew , but w ho
used French as a
vernacular.
This variety of rationalism was
based on the sifting of the older m idrashic exegesis in the light
of com m on sense, together w ith a lively interest in the w orld
and an ability to recreate the biblical scene in the light of contem porary experience and problem s. T hese interests and m ental
qualities the .Iew ish exegetes and their public shared w ith their
C hristian readers and consultants; so that the influence above
all of R ashi, and in a lesser degree other French-Jew ish com m entators of the 12th century - R ashi's grandson Sam uel b. M e'ir,
and Joseph B ekhor Shor - on at any rate a sm all group of French
and E nglish ecclesiatical com m entators, w as considerable. T hese
C hristian scholars seem all to have been connected, form ally or
otherw ise, w ith the V ictorine O rder, and they constitute a little
school started by the stim ulus and efforts of H ugh of St V ictor.
A lthough the m ovem ent did not outlast the 12th century it
had Its sporadic successors in the 13th am ong the Franciscans
and D om inicans, and a som ew hat shadow y group of hebraists
w as at w ork in E ngland under the patronage of R obert G rosseteste. T his, in its turn, petered out; but because of the use m ade
of the biblical com m entaries of A ndrew , A bbot of the V ictorine
R.
512
LO EW E
h o u s e a t W ig m o re , b y p o p u la r w rite rs
P e te r C o m e s to r -
incorporated
-
S te p h e n L a u g to n
m u c h o f th e ra b b in ic m a te ria l
in his commentaries
and
w h ic h h e h a d
was transmitted,
in-
in some
s ta n c e s b e in g lin k e d w ith th e e m e rg e n c e o f th e firs t v e rn a c u la r
ab
OVO,
w hen
th e
tra n s la tio n s o f th e B ib le . T h e w h o le p ro c e s s w a s re p e a te d
b u t w ith m o re e n d u rin g
J e w is h c o m m e n ta to rs '
b y th e n e w L a tin
re s u lts ,
in th e
1 6 th c e n tu ry ,
v ie w s w e re c o n s u lte d a n d
tra n s la to rs ,
e . g . X a n c te s
o fte n a d o p te d
P a g n in u s ;
and
in
part thence, in part directly, exercised not inconsiderable influ e n c e u p o n
s o m e o f th e
s ta n d a rd
v e rn a c u la r
tra n s la tio n s
-
not least am ong them , K ing Jam es'.
L e t m e c o n c lu d e w ith a b rie f e x a m in a tio n o f a p ie c e o f J e w is h
e x e g e s is w h ic h , o n a s u p e rfic ia l v ie w , m ig h t b e ju d g e d lu d ic ro u s
a n d d is m is s e d o u t
of hand,
its e lf o n th e C h ris tia n
th e J e w is h c a te g o rie s ,
and
p re s s e d in its a p p ro p ria te
v is io n o f th e
tio n e d
In
D iv in e
(1 , 1 0 ) -
c h a p te r
fro m th e
te x tu a l
th e n
of a
1 0 (v . 1 a n d
-
a c lo s e p a ra lle l w ill re v e a l
lo o k fo r a p a ra lle l th o u g h t
C h ris tia n fo rm .
C h a rio t,
th o s e
fa c e o f a c h e ru b
a lth o u g h
s id e if w e ta k e th e tro u b le to b re a k d o w n
th e lik e n e s s o f fo u r fa c e s is m e n -
1 4 ) th a t
a fa c t n o te d b y S t J e ro m e "
c h a n g e th a t
c . 2 7 5 ; h e d re w fro m
Israel being
which
ever conscious
e a g le .
by
th e
w h o c o n c lu d e d
c h e ru b im h a v e th e fa c e o f a n
R abbi
conclusion,
an
o f th e o x is re p la c e d
w a s a ls o n o te d
w h o d ie d
ex-
E z e k i e l 's i n a u g u r a l
m a n , a lio n , a n o x , a n d
T h e d is c re p a n c y
mystical
In
ox.
b y R e s h L a k is h , a P a le s tin ia n
it n o t
a
ra tio n a l
springs from the circumstance
of its idolatrous
lapse
in
bnt
a
that,
c o n n e c tio n
w ith th e g o ld e n c a lf, J e w is h s y m b o lis m is p ro n e to fin d a llu s io n s
to it in a n y
th e
re fe re n c e to b u lls o r o x e n . R e s h L a k is h
s u b s titu tio n
o f th e c h e ru b
fo r th e
o x b y s a y in g
e x p la in e d
th a t
E ze-
k ie l s o u g h t m e rc y c o n c e rn in g th e o x a n d h a d it c h a n g e d , p u ttin g
it to G o d th a t
a d v o c a t e '.
o n e w h o h a d o n c e b e e n p ro s e c u to r c o u ld n o t tu rn
A s R a s h i e x p la in s in h is c o m m e n ta ry
to th is p a s s a g e
o f th e T a lm u d , th e th e o lo g ic a l s ig n ific a n c e o f th e D iv in e C h a rio t is
a s b e in g a n a to n e m e n t
r. C o m m .
!
in
Babylonian
E zech.
III,
Talm ud
( c ' ~ n , '] '7 1 1
lO (P L
H a g ig a h
'1 1 : l : l '~
2 5 , 9 4 C .)
ISh.
1 l I i ' : l ' 1 lC' ' : l " ~
U N ), a n d
an d P atristic
M id ra e h im
E xegesis
513
of th e B ib le
in th is a re m in d e r o f fo rm e r g u ilt is o u t o f p la c e . In : h is h ib lic a l
in loco (E z .
c o m m e n ta ry
1 0 , 1 a n d 1 4 ) R a s h i re c ite s th e ta lm u d ic
e x e g e s is , b u t d o e s n o t a d d h is o w n e la b o ra tio n th e re g iv e n a s
ju s t q u o te d .
In a M S o f R a s h i
in th e B o d le ia n L ib ra ry "
a
C h ris tia n a n n o ta to r o f th e 1 3 th o r 1 4 th c e n tu ry h a s s u m m a ris e d
th e m a tte r in th e m a rg in in L a tin , c o n c lu d in g c a u s tic a lly
dicit
ebreus et credat apella.
A lth o u g h R a s h i's e ld e r c o n te m p o ra ry ,
S t P e te r D a m ia n , s a w
in th e g o ld e n c a lf a ty p e o f th e b o d y o f th e d e v il', C h ris tia n ity
h a s b e e n fre e o f th e J e w is h g u ilt-c o m p le x in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e
a rc h e ty p a l
a c t o f Is ra e l's n a tio n a l a p o s ta s y . T h e w o rd
vitulus,
w h ic h re n d e rs " l1 7 = c a lf in E x o d u s (3 2 , 4 ), 'is a lle g o ris e d in a t
le a s t s e v e n w a y s in p a tris tic lite ra tu re ';
a n d a lth o u g h in E z e k ie l
"w
(1 , 1 0 ) th e V u lg a te re n d e rs th e H e b re w
in th e c la s s ic a l p a tris tic
c o rre c tly w ith
bOB,
c o m m e n ta ry o n E z e k ie l, th e H o m ilie s
vitulus,
(f.'6axov). G re g o ry d id
Vetus Latina
o f G re g o ry , th e re n d e rin g is
fo llo w in g th e
a n d S e p tu a g in t
n o t c o m m e n t o n c h a p te r 1 0 ,
w h e re th e c h e ru b re p la c e s th e o x , b u t h e d o e s c o m m e n t o n th e
s ig n ific a n c e o f th e fo u r fa c e s d e s c rib e d in c h a p te r 1 . In a d d itio n ,
h e w rite s ',
to ty p ify in g th e fo u r e v a n g e lis ts , th e a n im a ls re p re -
s e n t e a c h a d iffe re n t e le m e n t in th e n a tu re o f th e S a v io u r h im s e lf, " w h o d e ig n e d to d ie lik e a c a lf a s th e s a c rific e o f o u r s a l-
vation " (Ipse in sacrijicia nostrae redemptianis dignatu8 est mori
ut vitulus), A n d s im ila rly , h is e le c t: justus quisque ... peT sacrificium mortificationis suae vitulus. F o r G re g o ry , a to n e m e n t is
th ro u g h th e s a c rific ia l d e a th o f th e In c a rn a tio n ,
ty p ifie d b y th e
fa c e o f th e o x o n th e C h a rio t w h ic h s u g g e s ts to h im th e b u ll,
a ls o re n d e re d
vitulus
in th e V u lg a te , s a c rific e d a s a c o m m u n a l
s in -o ffe rin g (L e v . 4 ,3 ). F o r R e s h L a k is h , a to n e m e n t is th ro u g h
th e P re s e n c e o f G o d 's S h e k h in a h ty p ifie d b y th e C h a rio t, its
m y s tic a lly v is ib le v e h ic le , fro m w h ic h G o d re m o v e s a n y th in g to
re c a ll Is ra e l's fa ith le s s n e s s , n o w p a rd o n e d . I p o s tu la te , n a tu ra lly ,
n o c o n n e c tio n
1
b e tw e e n
R esh
L a k is h :
but
th e
C orp u s C h risti C ollege, O xford , 6, f. 39 v .
• I n I ib r . E x o d i
8
G re g o ry a n d
S ee R h ab an u s
• H om .
in
2 4 (P L 1 4 5 , 1 0 2 7 ).
M a u ru s , A lleg. in S acr. S crip t. (P L
E zech.
4 (P L
7 6 , 8 1 5 B ).
112, 1082).
514
R.LoEWE
,
p a ra lle lis m in m y s tic a l th e o lo g y , o n c e it h a s b e e n e x p o s e d , is
impressive.
On the one side, dicit ebreus et credat apeUa; and on the other,
R . H i l k i a h 's u n c o n c e a l e d c o n t e m p t f o r t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e o f t h o s e
w h o c a n c o n c e iv e o f G o d t h e
F a th e r
p e rm ittin g
w ith
equa-
n im ity th e d e a th o f H is o n ly -b e g o tte n s o n . W ith u n h a p p ily fe w
e x c e p tio n s , th e a tm o s p h e re in w h ic h th e in te rc h a n g e o f J e w is h
a n d C h ris tia n v ie w s a s to th e u ltim a te s ig n ific a n c e o f H o ly W rit
h a s h a d to b e c o n d u c te d , h a s m a d e o f th e d is c u s s io n b u t a w ra n g le ,
b e d e v ille d b y a p o lo g e tic a n d p o le m ic . C a n a h is to ric a l p e rs p e c tiv e , a c o m p a ra tiv e
m e th o d o lo g y , a n d a b o v e a ll a d is tru s t
of
to o rig id a n d fa c ile c a te g o ris a tio n , le n d s c ie n tific s u p p o rt to th e
s u g g e s tio n th a t w h a t w e h a v e to d o w ith is , e s s e n tia lly , n o t a
c o n tro v e rs y b u t a d ia lo g u e !
Raphael Loewe ז״ל