Relics of a Forgotten Colony: The Cannon and Anchors of St. Eustatius

Ruud Stelten

St. Eustatius, a small island in the northeastern Lesser Antilles, was one of the busiest ports in the eighteenth-century Atlantic World. Contested between the Dutch, French, and English, the island attracted thousands of ships a year and became one of the most cosmopolitan places in the New World. Moreover, the island played an important role in the American War of Independence (1775-1783), during which large quantities of arms, ammunition, and gunpowder were shipped to the fledgling United States through St. Eustatius. Relics of this turbulent past are found all over the island and in its surrounding waters. These include warehouses in the historic port district, fortifications all around the island, sugar plantations in the countryside, and a variety of underwater archaeological sites such as shipwrecks, anchorage areas, and docks. Through extensive archaeological and documentary research, this study aims to provide a detailed analysis of the maritime cultural landscape of St. Eustatius over the past four centuries. It focuses on bridging the gap between the marine and terrestrial worlds and demonstrates that in order to truly make sense of the complex interactions, events, and processes that shaped this maritime world, both land and sea need to be studied in relation to each other.

During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the small Caribbean island of St. Eustatius thrived as an important trade center for the European colonies in the New World. Today the island is dotted with the ruins of plantations, forts, warehouses and other vestiges of human occupation, that have been studied by archaeologists for the last two decades. The present study summarizes information from dozens of archaeological reports and scholarly papers and assesses the current state of knowledge about the 288 documented archaeological sites on the island. This will provide planners and scholars with a concise document that will facilitate the coordination of research, preservation, and development goals in the coming years.

Relics of a Forgotten Colony The Cannon and Anchors of St. Eustatius MA Thesis by Ruud Stelten Relics of a Forgotten Colony The Cannon and Anchors of St. Eustatius Master Thesis by Ruud Stelten Student number: 0628131 Supervisors: Dr. Arie Boomert & R. Grant Gilmore III, PhD Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University Leiden, May 2010 Cover images: Top: cannon # 53, located at Fort Royal. Bottom: anchor # 1013, located at Anchor Point. Both photographs were taken by the author in March 2010. Table of Contents Acknowledgements 1 1. Introduction 3 2. Natural Setting 7 3. St. Eustatius in the Colonial Era 11 4. Anchors 25 5. Cast-iron Cannon 37 6. Research methodology 53 7. Results and Discussion 55 8. Cultural Heritage Management 73 9. Conclusion 75 Abstract 77 Bibliography 79 Appendix 1: Distribution Maps 87 Appendix 2: Cannon Database 89 Appendix 3: Anchor Database 263 Appendix 4: Database Summary 301 Appendix 5: Ordnance Inventories 307 Acknowledgements This thesis has been much more work than I previously envisaged. Although it has my name on it, I wouldn’t have been able to complete this project successfully on my own. Special thanks are due to a number of people and institutions. R. Grant Gilmore III, PhD (island archaeologist and director of SECAR) has helped me in every stage of the project by giving advice, coming up with encouraging ideas, and arranging practical aspects. Dr. Arie Boomert (lecturer and senior researcher, Leiden University), who was my supervisor, has provided me with a lot of valuable advice during our thesis tutorials. Heidi Senn (BA Hons Ancient History, Macquarie University) has been my research assistant and helped me document all the objects on land. She also helped me edit the draft of this thesis. Karson Winslow (MA Maritime Archaeology, Flinders University) has been my research assistant during the dives and helped me document all the underwater objects. Nico Brinck, a Dutch ordnance historian, has helped me with the identification of a number of cannon and provided drawings of the different types of cannon. Ruth Rhynas Brown and Charles Trollope, English ordnance historians, have also helped me with the identification of the guns. The Leids Universitair Fund (LUF) granted me € 500,- for this project. STENAPA (St. Eustatius National Parks Foundation) took me out to a number of dive sites, for which I am very thankful. The local dive centres, especially Scubaqua and Golden Rock, have also been very helpful by taking me out to dive sites and providing me with information about the locations of the underwater artifacts. Statia Terminals has been very kind by letting us have a look at the cannon on their facility. Other people who played a role in this project and I would like to thank are Martijn Manders, Stefan Blom, Nik Tompkins, and Alana Jessep. 1 2 1. Introduction There are many places on earth that no one has ever heard of. In some cases, this is due to their isolated location, in others simply because nothing significant has ever happened there. St. Eustatius, commonly referred to as Statia, is a small Caribbean island that doesn’t fit any of these conditions, yet hardly anyone knows of its existence. A greater contrast between this and the situation in the eighteenth century could not be struck. Two and a half centuries ago this island was the main transshipment centre in the Atlantic World. Everyone knew about St. Eustatius, and almost everyone consumed goods that at some stage had passed through this busy port. First colonized in 1629 by the French, the island changed hands 22 times among the French, Dutch and English before Dutch rule was permanently reinstated in 1816. It was here that the sovereignty of the United States was first recognized in 1776 with the famous First Salute. After about half a century of extreme prosperity, the economic situation on the island changed for the worse and in the early nineteenth century the island lost its significance as a major transit harbour. Nowadays Statia is littered with remnants of this long forgotten past. It is believed to have the densest concentration of colonial period artifacts anywhere in the New World. There are hundreds of archaeological sites on land and under water, causing the island to receive nicknames such as ‘The Pompeii of the New World’ and ‘The Historic Gem’. Archaeologists have been working on St. Eustatius from the early twentieth century onwards. In the 1920’s Dutch anthropologist De Josselin de Jong was the first to examine prehistoric remains, followed by Aad Versteeg of Leiden University in the 1980’s and 1990’s (De Josseling de Jong 1947; Versteeg & Schinkel 1992). The first excavations on colonial period sites started in the late 1970’s when Edwin Dethlefsen and Norman Barka of the College of William and Mary initiated an archaeological field school on the island (Dethlefsen et al. 1982). This work continued throughout the 1980’s. In the late 1980’s and early 1990’s the first underwater archaeology was performed. Surveys and excavations were conducted to locate the historical anchorage, map shipwrecks, and collect artifacts from the Oranje Bay area. In the first decade of the 21st century the St. Eustatius Center for Archaeological Research (SECAR) was founded under the direction of R. Grant Gilmore III. Under his supervision, numerous volunteers and students have excavated a variety of colonial period sites. 3 From this it becomes clear that a substantial amount of archaeological work has been carried out, however, much more work remains to be done. There are still thousands of finds that need to be analysed. Among these are coppers (sugar boilers), knives, spoons, keys and locks, and cannonballs. In 2009 a number of these metal artifacts were catalogued, and the author studied a collection of buckles found in Oranje Bay in the early 1990’s. A category that has not yet received the attention it deserves is large ferrous objects (made of iron or iron alloys) such as cannon and anchors. These objects can be found almost everywhere on Statia. Because cannon and anchors are visually prominent on the island and many people take an interest in them, and because cannon in particular often fall victim to treasure hunting, it was decided to devote a detailed study to these objects. Anchors on St. Eustatius have never been studied in a structured way. In 1991 Bryan Paul Howard completed his MA Thesis on the forts and batteries of St. Eustatius. He also conducted a brief survey of the cannon, but this survey was found to be highly unsatisfactorily for a number of reasons. First, insufficient measurements and photographs were taken. Second, the age, origin and type were not identified for the majority of cannon. A small number of guns were identified, but most of these identifications were found to be wrong. Third, no attempt was made to reconstruct their history. With the exception of Barbados, no island-wide systematic study of ordnance has ever been carried out in the Caribbean. Furthermore, not much work has been done on anchors, and most people, even underwater archaeologists, find it hard to identify them. In this work, all known cannon and anchors on and around St. Eustatius will be described. Four research questions have been addressed in this thesis: 1. How old are the cannon and anchors? 2. What types can be found on St. Eustatius? 3. Where do they come from and how and when did they end up on their present locations? 4. How should these artifacts be managed? The answers to these questions will shed light on the history of the objects and the island itself. It will also provide a comparative framework for research carried out in other parts of the Caribbean. In this thesis I will first give an introduction to the natural setting and colonial history of St. Eustatius. Then, an introduction to anchors and cannon will be given. These chapters will provide a frame of reference in which the artifacts can be placed. Next, the methodology of registration and analysis will be discussed. After this, the results for each artifact category are presented, followed by a discussion in which an attempt will be made at explaining how 4 and when the objects ended up on their current locations. A section about the management of the artifacts and a conclusion will bring the thesis to a close. The complete database of all the cannon and anchors documented during this project, including distribution maps and lists of fots and batteries with their cannon can be found in the appendices. 5 6 2. Natural Setting Geology and Geomorphology The Lesser Antilles is a chain of volcanic islands with a length of 740 kilometers stretching from the Anegada passage in the north to the South American continental margin in the south. Here the North and South American plates subduct beneath the Caribbean plate, creating the Lesser Antilles subduction zone. The immense friction generated by this process causes the sediment to melt and build up pressure. This pressure is released by volcanic activity. The Lesser Antilles island chain can be regarded as a double arc. In the southern part, from Grenada to St. Lucia, the arcs appear tightly superimposed (Roobol & Smith 2004). Northwards the arcs bifurcate, resulting in an inner arc of active volcanic islands and an outer extinct arc of limestone islands. Statia is located on the active inner arc of the Leeward Islands (Figure 1) and measures 8 x 4 kilometers at its widest points, with a total area of 21 km². It lies on a continuous submarine bank that also contains the islands of St. Kitts and Nevis. The island is morphologically dominated by two volcanic centers (Roobol & Smith 2004). The northern part comprises a cluster of five coalesced older volcanoes built of lava flows and Pelean domes and their pyroclastic aprons of block and ash deposits. These are less than one million years old. The highest of these hills is Boven Hill, reaching a height of 289 meters. They once constituted a separate island surrounded by sea cliffs. Two and a half kilometers to the southeast the morphologically youthful, dormant stratovolcano named The Quill (an English corruption of the Dutch word Kuil, which refers to the crater) is situated. It has an open crater with a diameter of 800 meters that rises to just over 600 meters at Mazinga Peak. At the crater rim the flanks sweep up to 50°. The crater’s bottom has an elevation of 278 meters. The Quill began forming 50,000 years ago, with its last eruption dating to around 1600 BP. It is almost entirely composed of varied pyroclastic deposits. There are no records of felt seismic activity on St. Eustatius. That The Quill is dormant instead of extinct has been proven by the discovery of heated groundwater with increasing temperature zonation towards it. A thick, white limestone formation, known as White Wall and Sugar Loaf Hill, is visible on The Quill’s southern slopes (Figure 2). This formation was formerly part of the sea bed, but was thrust upwards to the surface at an angle of 40° during one of The Quill’s active volcanic pe- 7 Figure 1. Map of the Leeward Islands. Source: Frommer’s Caribbean 2009. riods. Between the northern hills and The Quill is a plain (the cultuurvlakte) on which most habitation is located. This plain, with an area of circa 5.7 km², varies in elevation from 30 to 76 meters. It is bordered on the sea by steep 18-45 meter high cliffs. Because of the dry climate (see below), extensive erosion, and excellent runoff drainage, the soils are poor. Soils on the volcanic hills and The Quill are mostly shallow and the land here is stony. The plain’s soil has built up over pumice to form a loose, dusty black surface soil (Barka in Farnsworth 2001:107). This soil retains more moisture, but it may suffer severely from drought and drying out by the trade winds. Climate St. Eustatius has a maritime savannah climate. The average daytime temperature is about 27°C, while nighttime temperature averages 23°C. The average water temperature is 26°C. There is a light constant northeast trade wind and the weather is mostly dry and sunny. Rainfall occurs in showers of medium duration during the months of April, June and September and varies between 940 and 1220 mm per year. Hurricanes occur occasionally from June to November, with a peak from late August through September. Flora and Fauna The present-day landscape of Statia is far different from that encountered by the first human 8 Figure 2. Aerial view of St. Eustatius, from the south. Source: Flickr.com. inhabitants. Originally, much of the island was probably covered by an evergreen seasonal forest. Due to human activity this has been replaced by thorny woodland, including acacia shrubs mixed with West Indian cherry, blackberry, sugar apple and cacti. This is the most common vegetation on the island today. Along the coastal areas there are low flattened trees and bushes, as well as sea grapes, plants with fleshy leaves, and manchineel woodlands. On the slopes and in the crater of The Quill some of the natural vegetation is preserved. At a height of about 250 meters the thorny woodland changes into semi-evergreen seasonal forest with trees such as the silk cotton tree, white cedar, yellow plum, and gum tree. On the crater rim there is a small patch of elfin woodland. In the crater a dense evergreen seasonal forest is present in which cultivated plants such as cacao and mamaya can be found. The island is also home to sixteen species of orchids and many other types of plants. St. Eustatius has a high biodiversity in animals as well. It is home to a wealth of birds such as the brown pelican, magnificent frigate bird, and red billed tropic bird. Reptiles include the red bellied racer snake, the Lesser Antillean iguana, and lizards. Large land crabs are present as well, and hawksbill, green, and leatherback turtles can also be found. Due to human activity a lot of these native animals are threatened with extinction. Originally there were few mammal species present on the island, but humans have introduced cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, donkeys, horses, dogs, cats, rats, and mice. Statian waters boast an abundance of marine life including many types of fish, lobsters, crabs, queen conch, and the aforementioned turtles. These can be found on the many coral reefs around the island, which have covered The Quill’s lave flows. Migrating dolphins and whales are occasional visitors. Seas on the Caribbean side are relatively calm, while seas on the Atlantic side are rough and have a strong undertow. 9 10 3. St. Eustatius in the Colonial Era It was Wednesday 13th November 1493 when Christopher Columbus, on his second voyage, sailed by St. Kitts and became the first European to lay eyes on St. Eustatius. He didn’t land here, but he gave the island a name: S. Maria de la niebe (this name was later given to the island currently known as Nevis). Later explorers called the island by its Amerindian name Aloi, meaning ‘cashew island’. Throughout the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries the island appears on charts and in documents as Estasia, Estaxia, St. Anastasia, St. Eustatius, Statia, Eustathio and S. Eustachio. In the end, two of these names are still used today. In the sixteenth century the Spanish, who constituted the majority of Europeans in the Caribbean, didn’t settle on Statia. One of the reasons for this is that the island didn’t have the things that the Spaniards were looking for: treasures like gold and silver. Furthermore, it didn’t have many (if any) Indian slaves who could be employed to mine these precious metals. Not surprisingly, other European powers came to have a presence in the area as well during the sixteenth century, and over time they were successful in making dents in the Spanish monopoly in the Caribbean. The Spanish, forced to defend their major ports and the treasure fleets, directed their attention to the Greater Antilles. The Lesser Antilles served as entry points for pirates and buccaneers, but later also for merchants, leading eventually to a presence in the Caribbean for, among others, the English, French and Dutch. They soon saw the value of the islands beyond points from which to attack the Spanish. In the early seventeenth century these European powers started to see potential in agriculture and commerce, resulting in rapid colonization of the Lesser Antilles. The organization that facilitated the first permanent European settling of St. Eustatius finds its origin in a war between the then most powerful European empire and one of the richest areas in Europe that started in the preceding century. The founding of the Dutch West India Company The story of the first permanent European colonization of St. Eustatius begins with the founding of the Dutch West India Company (WIC). The events leading up to its foundation can be traced back to 1568, when the people of the Seventeen Provinces started the so called ‘Dutch Revolt’ against Philip II, the king of the Spanish empire to which they were subjected. The main reason for this revolt was the persecution of Protestants by the Spaniards during the 11 Protestant Reformation. The revolt resulted in the Eighty Years’ War, started by William the Silent to liberate the Calvinist Dutch from the Catholic Spaniards. In 1581 the northern provinces signed the Union of Utrecht and the Act of Abjuration, which can be seen as a Dutch declaration of independence. The provinces which declared themselves independent of Spain called themselves the Republic of the Seven United Provinces. Due to the war that was going on between this newly formed republic and Spain, the Dutch could no longer trade with Spain and its dominions (which also included Portugal). Until this time the Dutch had distributed goods imported from the overseas colonies of Spain and Portugal. One of the main commodities they imported from Portugal was salt. The prosperous Dutch herring industry required large quantities of this commodity to conserve the herring. When the trade of salt with the Iberian peninsula was forbidden in 1598, the Dutch merchants had to build up an independent trade and search for salt elsewhere. Due to the former trade with Spain and Portugal they were well acquainted with the riches of the West Indies and South America where Spain and Portugal had a number of colonies. Moreover, the Dutch had a large number of sailors, capable ship-owners and sufficient capital. After the Twelve Years’ Truce, the Dutch Republic founded the First Dutch West India Company in 1621. The WIC was a trading company that would increase trade with the West Indies and South America and establish settlements there which would be used as permanent trading posts. This was, however, not its main goal, since the WIC was an explicit instrument of war against Spain. This was to be, at all times, its main objective. The aim of the Dutch was not so much the occupation and colonization of the many easily available islands, as the gathering of information concerning the movements of the Spanish treasure fleets (Goslinga 1979:21). This information was used to capture the cargoes of Spanish ships, such as the famous silver fleet seized by Admiral Piet Heyn in 1628. The Dutch merchants started an illicit trade with the Spanish colonies. As early as 1629 the Dutch had begun obtaining salt regularly on Tortuga. Salt was also obtained from St. Martin, Anguilla, the Curaçao islands, and the lagoon of Punta de Araya and the coastal area around the Uribe River in Venezuela. This aroused Great Britain’s jealousy since they were conducting illegal activities in the area as well, despite the monopoly position of Spain. The early years In the 1630’s the Dutch began to colonize various Caribbean islands. St. Maarten was colonized in 1631, Curaçao in 1634, Aruba, Bonaire and St. Eustatius in 1636 and Saba around 1640. In December 1635 the Zeeland merchant Jan Snouck and his partners received permission to establish a colony on St. Croix. They fitted out a ship, appointed Peter van Corselles as leader of the future colony and sent him with sufficient men to the West Indies. On arrival the island appeared not to live up to expectations regarding fertility and 12 anchorages, so they concentrated on the nearby St. Eustatius. This island was occupied by the Dutch in the spring of 1636. The expedition found the island uninhabited. The Amerindians who had lived there had probably died out or moved to other islands. The English were the first Europeans to settle on St. Eustatius in 1625, but they moved soon after, probably due to unsuccessful agriculture (Alofs et al. 1997:76). Van Corselles and his men found the ruins of a deserted bastion on the island, on which they built Fort Oranje. This bastion was built in 1629 by the French. In this year they temporarily settled on Statia, because they were afraid that the Spanish were going to use the island as a base from which to attack the French settlement on St. Kitts. Insufficient quantities of drinking water made their stay a short one. The Dutch strengthened the French fort with some cannon (Goslinga 1979:79). In 1636 the new population of St. Eustatius consisted of 40-50 people. These were mainly Zeelanders, Flemings and Walloons. They set up tobacco, sugar cane and cotton plantations and called the island ‘Nieuw Zeelandt’. Coffee and indigo were also grown on the island. As the plantations increased, so did the number of imported black and red slaves. Because of the international trade several European merchants settled on the island as well, although the emphasis in this century lay on agriculture. In 1665 the population had grown to 330 white people and 840 Negroes and Indians. The yields from the plantations, which by 1650 were even to be found on the slopes of the hills, were exported to Zeeland. Prosperity increased steadily. It was probably not until the beginning of the eighteenth century that urban development started to take place. Habitation in the seventeenth century most likely consisted of scattered farms around the fort (Purmer 2003). There were also a few warehouses built indicating small-scale trade. All this Dutch activity on the island caused Great Britain to be envious, particularly since a royal patent of 1627 declared Great Britain the owner of St. Eustatius. Despite these irritations these first few decades were very peaceful. Turbulent times In 1663 peace was disrupted when the Englishman Robert Holmes sacked the island. The English occupied St. Eustatius in 1665 during the Second Anglo-Dutch War after an attack led by Edward Morgan. In 1667 St. Eustatius was given back to the Dutch after the Treaty of Breda. In 1672, during the Third Anglo-Dutch War, Statia was under English control again, but a year later the Dutch took over the island. At the Treaty of Westminster in 1674 it was officially returned to the Netherlands, but the English were afraid it would fall into French hands, so they held on to it. This was agreeable to the Heren XIX, the board of the West India Company; in this way they didn’t have to spend any money on the defense of the island (Attema 1976:18). In 1679 it was taken back into Dutch hands. In the same year though, the French attacked the island and destroyed the whole settlement. A year later a joint English/Dutch attack placed the island in Dutch hands again. 13 At this time the West India Company thought St. Eustatius would be very suitable as a transit harbour for slaves. Until now Statia had been owned by various ‘patrons’. These were individual merchants and representatives of the Zeeland Chamber, who had a large capital at their disposal and were responsible for law and order and the appointment of a commander. In 1682 the island became completely the property of the Second Dutch West India Company. The Zeeland merchants who had owned the island gave it to the Second WIC since the constant disruption to planting and trading activities by pirates and privateers proved too difficult for them. In 1689 St. Eustatius was captured by the French during King William’s War. They hauled away a booty close to two million dollars. By 1697 the Dutch found themselves again in possession of the island, after the English recaptured it for them (Goslinga 1979:81). The poor state of the island’s defense, including cannon that wouldn’t fire or would even explode, was one of the main reasons why it was often given over without any significant opposition during the last four decades of the seventeenth century. Moreover, the inhabitants over time lost the will to resist, since the Dutch Republic most of the time didn’t supply them with sufficient ammunition. The multiple changes of power and an economic recession led to great poverty on the island at the end of the seventeenth century (Purmer 2003). People sometimes didn’t even have money to buy shoes. Because land was extremely cheap, people from other islands started moving to Statia. Between 1705 and 1715 the population on the island more than doubled from 606 to 1,274 inhabitants. Because of this population increase and the prevailing poverty, in 1717 the Statians wanted to colonize St. Croix, but an answer from the States General of the Republic was never received (Hartog 1976:35). During the first three decades of the eighteenth century family feuds and rivalries increased dramatically, ruining all chances of good and stable government and undermining a solid basis for prosperity. Since Statia wasn’t very productive at that time, the Heren X didn’t really care about this turmoil. Forts and batteries The first record of a fort other than Fort Oranje is found at the end of the seventeenth century. It was in this period that the Waterfort was built, although the exact year of construction is unclear. It contained sixteen cannon but was hardly ever used. As a result, it quickly fell into disrepair. In the late 1680’s a battery was built on Gilboa Hill, overlooking Tommelendijk (Tumble Down Dick) Bay. When Isaac Lamont accepted the post of commander in 1701, he found the forts in a sad state. He asked the Heren X of the WIC for building materials and craftsmen to strengthen them, but his needs were never met. In 1709 French filibusters captured the island. Out of joy at their easy conquest, they wanted to fire off a cannon, but not a single one was fit for use (Hartog 1976:33). The French soon took off with a large booty, after which Lamont resumed possession of the island. By this time there were three other 14 batteries in use apart from Fort Oranje: Dolijn, Tommelendijk and a new fort between Tommelendijk and Oranje. Nearly 30 years later, during the command of Isaac Faesch, the forts were still in a poor state. In 1737 the taxes were raised to finance their repair and the WIC sent 30,000 bricks for the renovation of the forts. The walls were strengthened and the platforms for the cannon were rebuilt, but despite from that everything remained much as before (Attema 1976:24). In 1748, during the command of Johannes Heyliger, the citizens voluntarily raised a sum of money for the building of some new coastal forts. Two new forts were built: Hollandia and Zeelandia. The Heren X supplied the forts with cannon, but they forgot to send the cannonballs. Fort Oranje was renovated as well, but by 1755 its condition had again deteriorated. In the mid-eighteenth century commander De Windt built various batteries along the northern coast of the island: Turtle Bay, Concordia, Corriecorrie and Lucie. In the south he built a battery named after himself: Battery De Windt. By 1781 fourteen military sites were present on the island, all in severe disrepair. At the end of the same year the French, who had taken over the island, restored the neglected forts and built four new ones: Panga, Jussac, Royal, and Bouille. They also constructed a network of roads linking the forts and batteries. By the end of 1782 Johannes de Graaff mentions that the island had been brought ‘in a formidable state of defense’ (Hartog 1976:97). All these sites were not used simultaneously. The Statian garrison numbered around fifty men of a low standard. They were vagrants, ranging from seventeen year old boys to 67 year old men. The attitude of the WIC was one of the reasons why the fortifications time and time again fell into negligence. Everything had to be done as cheaply as possible. This wasn’t exceptional in the Caribbean, since defenses of the British and French islands fared no better. Figure 3. Drawing by Jan Veltkamp depicting slaves working on a Statian sugar plantation around 1750. Source: National Maritime Museum, Amsterdam. 15 Figure 4. Drawing by S. Weuijster depicting slave traders in the roadstead of St. Eustatius in 1763. Goods and people are being transported between ships. One of the sailing ships bears the name Sara Helena. Source: Atlas van Stolk collection, Rotterdam. The slave trade In the 1630’s the Dutch conquered parts of Brazil and Guinea. From this time on they improved their position as slave traders. In the period 1660-1670 Curaçao developed into an important slave depot for the West Indies. After 1730 everyone was allowed to export slaves from the Dutch West African coast, but had to pay tribute to the WIC to do so. The WIC lost a lot of money to smugglers who didn’t pay and could offer slaves for a cheaper price. On St. Eustatius these smugglers sold a lot of slaves, since the WIC failed to supply slaves time and time again. Already in 1675 St. Eustatius provided the French, Spanish and English islands with slaves (Hartog 1976:49). By 1725 the Dutch shipped 2,000 to 3,000 slaves per year to the island, almost all in transit (Figure 4). Sometimes the slaves were transferred from one ship to another without even coming ashore. Slaves were delivered dressed, and if you wanted to get a good price for a slave, he/she needed to be well fed. Due to a lack of accommodation, in 1724 a slave house was built in the Waterfort that could house 450 slaves. The Statian slaves worked not only on plantations (Figure 3), but also as crewmen on ships, ship workers, transporters of goods to and from ships, and as servants. They possibly also helped in making illegally imported raw sugar into rum. The slave trade reached its peak in the early 1770’s. Towards the end of the eighteenth century people started to protest against this trade. The slave trade in the Dutch colonies was ended in 1814, but it wasn’t until 1863 that the Dutch abolished slavery. The conditions were likely less difficult for slaves on Statia compared to those in other places. Here they could earn money with which they could purchase their freedom. These so called ‘free blacks’ would sometimes have a few slaves of their own (Gilmore in Haviser & MacDonald 2006:78). Nevertheless, it often happened that slaves tried to escape, not always without success. In 1750, a ship named the Young Elias lay at anchor at 16 St. Eustatius. The only people on board were four slaves, who hoisted sail and escaped to Puerto Rico, where, once they were baptized, they didn’t have to worry about being sent back. Growing prosperity and the Golden Era The economic situation of Statia changed for the better after 1730. In 1739 a synagogue was built for the growing Jewish community of the island. Most people, however, were Christian, resulting in the building of various churches over time. By the 1740’s it was no longer possible to expand agriculture, since all arable land was under cultivation. The demand for sugar soared in this decade. As a result, the plantations growing cotton, coffee and tobacco were converted into sugar cane plantations. A 1742 map of the island shows 88 plantations and/or landholdings. Nearly four decades later, in 1781, this number had diminished to about twenty, indicating an economic shift from agriculture to trade. The residential and commercial areas on the island were enlarged in the eighteenth century despite various setbacks and difficulties like lazy workers, conflicts about landownership and devastating hurricanes in 1772 and 1780. The bay area, where Lower Town is located, was extended by reclaiming land from the sea and Upper Town by newly built houses on a stretch of land called the ‘Compagniessavane’, a plantation above the village. Lower and Upper Town were divided by high cliffs. Several steep paths connected the two parts of the town. Lower Town started to become a trade locus towards the end of the first half of the eighteenth century. Due to steady population growth, housing was scarce and rental of a house was very expensive. This caused merchants to build houses on the bay after 1760, some of which were of palatial dimensions. Besides the residential houses new warehouses, trade offices and a new weighing house were built. In the latter half of the eighteenth century building activities and trade increased resulting in a strip of two-story high warehouses that stretched for two kilometers along the bay (Figures 5 & 6). They were sometimes so full that the doors could no longer be used. An account from the Scottish lady Janet Schaw dating to 1775 shows Lower Town to have been a continuous market displaying goods of different types and qualities sold by people from all over the world: “From one end of the town of Eustatia to the other is a continuous market, where goods of the most different uses and qualities are displayed before the shop doors. Here hang rich embroideries, painted silks, flowered Muslins, with all the Manufactures of the Indies. Just by hang Sailor’s Jackets, trousers, shoes, hats, etc. The next stall contains the most exquisite silver plate, the most beautiful indeed I ever saw, and close by these iron pots, kettles and shovels. Perhaps the next presents you with French and English Millinary wares. But it were endless to enumerate the variety 17 Figure 5. View of St. Eustatius from the northwest as it appeared in 1774. The large building in Upper Town is the residence of Jan de Windt. To the left of the church tower is the town hall. The first building (with the blue roof) at the front of Lower Town is the weighing-house. The building behind the weighing-house is the headquarters of the Dutch West India Company. Watercolour by Emants, after a drawing by A. Nelson. Source: www.secar.org. Figure 6. View of St. Eustatius from the southeast as it appeared in 1774. The house left of the church tower, with the flag, is the governor’s house. Between this house and the church tower Fort Oranje is situated. Saba can be seen in the background on the left. Most ships are flying the Dutch tricolour, but there are also English flags (the St. George’s Cross) to be seen on the ships. Watercolour by Emants, after a drawing by A. Nelson. Source: www.secar.org. 18 of merchandise in such a place, for in every store you find every thing, be their qualities ever so opposite.” (Journal of a Lady of Quality: Janet Schaw, 1731-1801) After 1760, the number of ships arriving on Statia numbered between 1,800 and 2,700, reaching a maximum of 3,551 ships in 1779. They came from Europe, Africa and the Americas. Almost 20,000 merchants, slaves, sailors and plantation owners were crowded on this small island in its heyday (a large proportion of these were temporary residents). In the 1770’s imports exceeded the capacity of the island’s warehouses and sugar and cotton were piled up high in the open air (Klooster 1998:96). This was the time at which St. Eustatius reached its greatest prosperity and earned its nickname the ‘Golden Rock’. In these years Statian society was composed of a small group of long-term residents and a majority of people who were short-term immigrants from Europe and the Americas, hoping to become rich in a short time. This resulted in a constant influx of new goods and ideas. Both politically and economically Statia was dominated by a small elite group of men who controlled the trade. The wealth and power of these men was symbolized and transmitted to the Statian population. This resulted in a culture focused on material possessions such as large numbers of slaves, extensive landholdings, large houses, and fancy objects such as Chinese porcelain. Johannes de Graaff, the commander of the island from 1776 to 1781, is a perfect example of this. His personal possessions included an army of slaves, chests filled with gold and silver coins and even a duck pond. There were several reasons for Statia’s economic success. First, it had an ideal location on the busy sea-lanes between the Greater and Lesser Antilles. Second, the harbour was ideally situated on the leeward side of the island and geological conditions inhibited the condensation of rain clouds on The Quill. This reduced the quantity of rainfall, restricting the quality and quantity of tobacco, sugar cane and other farm products that could be produced on the island. Left with no agricultural promise, trade was the best option for the residents (Gilmore in Reid 2008). Third, the island was surrounded by colonies of various European countries. These colonies were dependent on supplies from their mother countries according to the monopoly system, which were not always sufficient or on time. Every colonial power tried to monopolize the trade with its colonies in order to keep the prices high (Alofs et al. 1997:77). Since it was a Dutch custom to favour free trade and the Republic was in a neutral position in many European wars, in 1754 St. Eustatius was made into a free port which was in an excellent position to ship not only slaves but also other illegal supplies such as sugar, tobacco, foodstuffs, gunpowder, and weapons to these colonies. This illicit trade between the Caribbean islands, the Spanish-American mainland and the North American colonies is termed the kleine vaart. On Statia this took on enormous proportions. For example, around 1770 Statia produced about 600,000 lbs of sugar annually, but it exported 20 million lbs. The 19 remaining 19.4 million lbs were brought over from other islands and sold tax free on St. Eustatius to maximize profit (Gilmore 2004:49). Weapons and gunpowder, originally coming from Europe, were shipped in great numbers to the English colonies in North America in exchange for commodities such as sugar and tobacco. This trade reached its peak during the American War of Independence. The outbreak of this war in 1774 brought as many as twenty North American ships at a time crowding into the small bay at St. Eustatius to buy supplies needed by the rebels. Even the English merchants on the island were willing to sell whatever the enemies of their country needed. In 1775 the export of arms and war equipment to North America from Dutch ports was forbidden by the Dutch government under pressure from Great Britain, but on Statia this was, of course, ignored and the illegal trade continued to flourish. This is aptly illustrated by a letter from Abraham van Bibber, the Maryland agent on the island, written to his superiors, saying: ‘obedience to the law would be ruinous for the trade’. Gunpowder was shipped in boxes labeled as tea or in bales labeled as rice, officials were bribed and the control by customs officers was faulty (Goslinga 1985:144). These three factors caused the island to become the major trading center in the New World. The turn of the tide On 16th November 1776 Johannes de Graaff, the commander of St. Eustatius at the time, fired a return salute to the Andrew Doria, an armed North American brigantine flying the colours of the rebelling thirteen colonies. Although this counter salute was insufficient for a recognition of the sovereignty of a foreign state (it was not in accordance with protocol) and De Graaff didn’t have the slightest competency to do such a thing, the act was interpreted by the English as clear recognition of the rebellious colonies’ newly found state by St. Eustatius. The English were furious and felt betrayed by the Dutch because Statia, the representative of what was at that time still an allied state, chose the side of their enemy (Jameson 1903). The Statians, however, just wanted to make as much profit as possible, and ships like the Andrew Doria always came to buy arms and ammunition (Hartog 1976:72). Moreover, it wasn’t the first time that a ship flying the Grand Union Flag received a return salute. Earlier that year it also happened on St. Croix and St. Thomas (Jameson 1903). The big difference with Statia was that here the flag was flown by a commissioned naval vessel whose captain, Isaiah Robinson, was a Captain of the Navy. The Statians had no idea of this, because the Andrew Doria didn’t look like a naval vessel by outward appearances (Hartog 1976:70). Nevertheless, this event, together with the capture of an English ship by the American ship Baltimore Hero near Statia in 1776, the continued saluting of North American ships buying arms by commander De Graaff whom the English wanted to be fired, the constant equipping and fitting-out of privateers to prey on British commerce, and the steadily growing envy of the English to the prosperity of St. Eustatius led to increased conflict with Great 20 Figure 7. The English fleet in the harbour of St. Eustatius. Drawing by an anonymous person. Source: www.secar.org Figure 8. Drawing by Hendrik Gartman showing the plundering by the English. The original caption of this picture reads (translated into English): “Great Britain lauds the enormities of Rodney and Vaughan in the most fulsome terms to conceal their iniquity. I, for my part, filled with horror at their cruel behaviour, call Rodney Nero and Vaughan Caligula.” Source: Atlas van Stolk collection, Rotterdam. 21 Britain - which declared war on the Republic in December 1780 - and the capturing of the island by Admiral George Bridges Rodney in February 1781 (Jameson 1903). Together with Sir Samuel Hood and General Vaughan he arrived on St. Eustatius with 3,000 men in 23 ships of the line, five frigates and a number of smaller ships (Figure 7). The odds were clearly against the Dutch garrison of fifty men in their neglected forts and batteries and the two Dutch men-of-war lying at anchor. Nevertheless, a few shots were fired for honour’s sake before the island surrendered. Rodney kept the Dutch flag flying from Fort Oranje for a month in order to seize the cargoes of unsuspecting ships arriving on the island. The warehouses were sealed and all shops had to remain closed. The largest booty captured anywhere during the Colonial Period was the result: a fleet loaded with goods and money worth over £5,000,000 was sent to Great Britain. Unfortunately for the English the ships carrying the loot were captured off Brest by the Dutch and the French, so it never reached Great Britain. The intended destruction of the island, which Rodney called ‘a nest of vipers which preyed upon the vitals of Great Britain’, did not take place (Attema 1976:40). Towards the end of 1781 the French managed to take over the island with a surprise attack. At this time, France and the United Provinces were allies against Great Britain. St. Eustatius returned to Dutch control in 1783. In 1784, after the actual change of government had taken place, St. Eustatius again became a free port and trade recovered, causing the economy to flourish once more. The population increased to a record breaking 8,000 at the end of the 1780’s, of which almost 5,000 were slaves. However, it would never exceed the prosperity of the decades before. Around 1795 the importance of St. Eustatius as a transit harbour declined. The United States had become independent and trade with neighbouring islands decreased as well. To Figure 9. View of Fort Oranje and the Crater as it appeared in 1860, by G.W.C. Voorduin. Source: www.secar.org. 22 make matters worse, the end of the slave trade was looming. On top of all this the French captured the island in 1795 and the inhabitants had to pay all sorts of taxes. These events signaled the end of prosperity on what a mere fifteen years earlier was the richest trading centre in the Caribbean. In 1801 the English seized St. Eustatius again, but a year later Dutch rule was reinstated with the peace of Amiens. In 1810 St. Eustatius surrendered to the English. In 1814 Great Britain agreed to return the six Caribbean islands to the Dutch. In 1816 the actual change occurred, causing the Dutch flag to reappear in the West Indies. In the following decades the warehouses that used to be stuffed to their roofs decayed, just like the forts and batteries. The houses in Upper Town fared a bit better. In 1840 there were just ten plantations left. After the abolishment of slavery, slaves left the countryside to settle in the town and as a result the cultivation of crops came to an end. In order to provide some income 80,000 warehouse bricks were exported in 1855. Another way the people on the island made money in these years was by exporting trass, a volcanic earth that makes good mortar, to other Caribbean islands. Devastating hurricanes in 1898, 1899, 1900, 1923 and 1928 caused a lot of damage and increased the rate of decline. The population decreased from 2,668 people in 1816 to a mere 921 in 1948. The island that was once known as one of the leading ports of the world became an almost forgotten community. 23 24 4. Anchors ‘A heavy, strong, crooked instrument of iron, stone and sometimes wood, dropped from a ship into the bottom of the water, to retain her in a convenient station in a harbour, road, or river.’ This definition from William Falconer’s Universal Dictionary of the Marine (1780) describes, in a nutshell, what an anchor is and does. There is, however, a lot more to say about this crucial piece of nautical equipment. Already used by the ancient Egyptians five millennia ago and continued to be used today, anchors can be found in a great variety of types and forms. Before diving deeper into its history, construction and, most importantly, the differences between anchors of various nations, it is important to take a closer look at how an anchor exactly works and to get acquainted with the anchor terminology which will be used throughout this work. Terminology, working and handling The anchor has five principal parts: the vertical stem called the shank; the arms terminating in the flukes; the stock, which turns the anchor into a position that enables it to dig in; and the shackle or ring, through which the rope or cable runs that attaches the anchor to the vessel (Figure 10). Anchors don’t hold a ship in a steady position just by means of their weight (except for the earliest stone anchors). Once dropped into the water, the flukes of the anchor are designed to dig into the bottom of the sea, lake or river. Equally important is the cable by Figure 10. Anchor terminology. Source: The NAS Guide to Principles and Practice (2009). 25 Figure 11. Catting (left) and fishing an anchor, as depicted in Darcy Lever’s Young Sea Officer’s Sheet Anchor (1819). which the anchor is attached to the ship. This cable has to be long enough to allow the anchor to do its job (ideally three and a half to five times the depth of the water in which it is used). Important in this respect is the curve of the cable, known as the catenary. The deeper the curve the more horizontal the eventual pull on the anchor will be, thus burying the flukes deeper into the ground. The elasticity provided by a deep curve in the cable also prevents a vessel from coming to a sudden stop (Curryer 1999:9). When preparing to leave, the anchor has to be pulled up, a process called weighing. On ancient vessels this was most likely done by just pulling the anchor out of the water on its rope. On later ships more sophisticated methods were used. An example can be found in a Danish ship dating to c. AD 950, on which a windlass operated by handspikes was used to weigh the anchor. Because the anchor cable of large anchors from big Medieval and postMedieval ships was too heavy and unmanageable to take directly around a capstan, a smaller rope termed ‘the messenger’ went round the capstan and then led forward to the hawse holes. Short light lines called nippers were used to bind cable and messenger together. In this way the messenger line aided in pulling up the cable. On ships dating from roughly the early fifteenth to the mid-nineteenth century, the anchor, once weighed, had to be catted, meaning that it had to be retrieved by attaching a hook from a tackle to the shackle of the anchor (Figure 11). The anchor was then hoisted to the horizontal close to the ship’s side (Curryer 1999:12). This was done by means of a fish davit that was hooked onto the crown of the anchor, a practice referred to as ‘fishing the anchor’ (Figure 11). The development of larger iron and steel ships led to revised methods of handling anchors. The introduction of stockless anchors ultimately led to them being pulled up directly into a hawse hole. 26 Anchors in the age of European expansion Although anchors have a long history, it is beyond the scope of this work to elaborate on precolonial types. Since St. Eustatius was only colonized in the seventeenth century, the focus will be on seventeenth-, eighteenth- and nineteenth-century anchors. Suffice to say is that the earliest anchors were usually nothing more than a stone (often in a pyramidal, triangular or rectangular shape) with a hole drilled through it to attach it to a rope made of natural fibers, sometimes with extra holes to hold sticks which helped to bury the anchor into the ground. These evolved into the ‘typical’ anchor form (Figure 10) of which the first evidence comes from Archaic and Classical Greece. Throughout the Roman and Medieval periods the quality of anchors and their cables, together with the methods of handling, improved. Before the beginning of the sixteenth century, the basic design of the anchor had been fully developed. Apart from a general increase in size and the development of some new minor manufacturing techniques, little or no gross modification of anchors occurred during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. There were a number of differences between anchors from various countries in this period. These are crucial for identification, since anchors are often found as isolated artifacts on the seafloor without any context or association with other objects (such as a wreck site). It is thus important that the differences between them, which are often very subtle, are discussed in detail. Most anchors of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries had curved arms (Upham 2001:12). English anchors gradually changed from curved- to straight-armed during the period 1540-1600, since the latter were easier to manufacture in the increasingly large dimensions required by the growth in the size of ships. Curved arms were, however, considered to be preferable, since these lessen the sheering movement as the anchor is broken out of the ground when weighed (Curryer 1999:53). During this period the angle of the arms Figure 12. The English eighteenth- and early-nineteenth-century Admiralty anchor. The drawings on the left are from David Steel’s Naval Architecture, 1793. 27 increased from 40 to 60 degrees. The flukes were equilateral triangles half the length of the arm, and the shank four to five fluke lengths from the crown to the shackle end (Curryer 1999:41). The two-piece timber stock, bound with iron hoops and further secured with wooden pegs, was roughly the same length as the shank. The English Old Admiralty Longshank anchor, already used extensively in the seventeenth century, continued to be the standard type during the 1700’s (Figure 12). A noteworthy feature is the bill on its flukes, which over time increased markedly. Its one weakness was the tendency for the arms to break off when heavily stressed, a result of shortcomings in the welding process and the severe strain on the arms when weighed out of the sea bed. Royal Navy anchors were supposed to be marked with their weight, the Broad Arrow and the maker’s initials, but because the arms frequently broke off the smiths were reluctant to put their mark on their work. In 1779 the British Royal Navy started a program to sheet the hulls of ships with copper. It was soon found out that the square ends of the wooden anchor stocks damaged this sheeting, so from May 1780 onwards the ends of these stocks were rounded off. This provides a good terminus post quem for English wooden stocked anchors with their ends rounded off. Further, from 1786 onwards the ring hole of English anchors was rounded to conform to the arc of the ring, thus providing another good terminus post quem for their date of manufacture. According to Pering (1819), English eighteenth-century anchors had a more rounded angle at the junction between arm and crown, while their Dutch, French, Swedish, Spanish and Russian equivalents have a very sharp angle (Figure 19). Dutch anchors were strong and solid compared to, for example, the slender Spanish ones. Late-seventeenth and early-eighteenth-century Dutch types had nearly straight arms Figure 13. Late seventeenth and early eighteenth century Dutch anchors. The wooden stock is secured with nails instead of iron bands. From David Mortier’s L’art de Batir les Vaisseux (1719). 28 Figure 14. Dutch anchors from about 1830, from Pieter Le Comte’s Praktikale Zeevaartkunde (1842). with pointy flukes, although there are also examples of types with more curved arms (Figure 13). Dutch eighteenth-century anchors often had a large bill on their flukes, the bill being part of the arm. This can be seen on several recovered examples from Dutch East India Company ships, such as that of the ship of the line Delft, used between 1783 and 1797. These flukes were called Engelsche bladen. Their arms are, however, set at a larger angle than the English ones. A crucial distinction between the Dutch and English anchors from this period is the form of the arms. Pering, when talking about English anchors, states that: “the arms are made straight…. which makes our anchors differ in shape from those of every other nation” (Pering 1819:37). Early-nineteenth-century Dutch, Danish and Swedish types had longer arms welded to the shank at a wider angle than those of the French (Figure 19). A close look at the drawings in this illustration shows that these Dutch, Danish and Swedish types don’t have a bill that is part of the arm, unlike their English equivalents. If they do have a bill, it is part of the fluke itself. Around 1830 a Dutch type with marked curves of the arms towards the shank appears. Between 1819 and 1830 the Dutch anchor design was thus changing from having sharp-angled to more curved arms towards the shank. A bill, again part of the arm, can be present on flukes of types from this period, although the arm can also become thinner on the fluke and fade away towards the end. These flukes, which are flatter than the billed ones, were called Goudsche bladen (Figure 14). Wooden stocks on Dutch anchors had a convex shape and tapered underneath during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It appears that latereighteenth- and nineteenth-century Dutch anchors could also have round wooden stocks. French eighteenth-century anchors could have maker’s marks on the crown accompanied by a number of fleur-de-lis. Their six-sided shank tapers to the junction with the stock; the latter is often marked by an upward curve from the centre and held by bands. During the late seventeenth and roughly the first half of the eighteenth century they had curved arms, as opposed to the straight arms of their English equivalents. In the latter half of 29 Figure 15. French eighteenth century anchors. Top left: French anchor with curved arms from 1723, from Reaumur’s Fabrique des Ancres (1764). Top right: French anchor of about 1760 with a foundry mark on the crown, from Diderot’s Encyclopédie (1751-1772). Bottom: French anchor with the common upturned stock and flukes angled to the arms, from Diderot’s Encyclopédie (1751-1772). the eighteenth century their flukes, which were sometimes curved, were set at an angle to the arms (Figure 15). These characteristic arms with angled flukes can also be found on ironstocked French anchors, such as the ones from the ship Le Coureur (1776). Eighteenth-century Spanish anchors had curved arms with flukes that closely resemble the barb on a fish hook. Their crown can be slightly inverted, which makes them differ from most anchors of the time. Their stocks didn’t have an upward curve like the French ones, although they tapered underneath, much the same as those from English types. Spanish 30 anchors from this period, as all European types until the late eighteenth century, had wooden stocks and were sometimes made of bronze. Since many North American ships traded on St. Eustatius, it is important to discuss the situation regarding anchors in this part of the New World as well. In the time when the area that was to become the United States was still an English colony, anchors were all imported. This was done by merchants such as Englishman Ralph Carr, who established a successful trade with the North American colonies. In the mid-eighteenth century he shipped so-called ‘ballast commodities’ (among which were anchors), used to fill partially laden vessels on the westbound voyage, from Newcastle to New York and Boston (Roberts 1968:271). Only around the time that the North American colonies became independent to form the United States did domestic anchor production start. The First Tariff Act, passed in 1789, was a measure to protect the infant manufacturers of the United States. Under this government initiative, specific import duties were established for certain objects, including anchors. This means that anchors, albeit in small amounts, were already being made in the United States in the late 1780’s. In old documents mention is made of at least four anchor forges operating on Rhode Island in 1795, and between 1800 and 1830 various anchor bloomeries were established in New Jersey, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Maryland, District of Columbia, and the state of New York (Bishop et al. 1868; Lesley 1856). Despite the measures mentioned above, American anchors were often undersold by imported English anchors made of inferior quality iron. To the best of the author’s knowledge, no research into North American anchor types has thus far been carried out, and therefore it is not possible to discuss the characteristics of these objects at this stage. In the seventeenth century the English and Dutch were the first to specify in print the types and sizes of anchors carried in various types of vessels. The number of anchors carried by a ship usually varied between five and nine, depending on its size. Witsen and Van Yk mention four different types of anchors used on the Dutch men-of-war. The smallest one was the kedger, which was used in calm weather or a weak tidal stream. It was often used to get a ship up or down a river or when it ran aground in shallow water. The kedger would be carried by one of the ship’s small boats away from the ship in the direction it needed to go. At a given point the anchor was dropped into the water from the small boat, and the large ship would be hauled on the anchor cable to the chosen anchorage. The stream anchor was slightly larger than the kedger and was used in an easy stream or tide. The bower, carried on the bow, was the largest. The strongest bower was called the sheet or best bower anchor, which was carried on the starboard side. The bowers were used with regard to the weather patterns. In the Northern Hemisphere winds tend to shift from southwest to northwest on the passage of a depression over a ship at anchor (Upham 2001:13). To prevent the anchor cables from getting tied up, the port bower was the first one to be dropped. Then, as the winds increased, the sheet 31 Figure 16. The forging of an anchor: welding an arm to the shank. For an effective weld, both parts need to be heated simultaneously, so there are two forges, with the cranes arranged to swing shank and arm from fire to anvil with the least delay. From Diderot’s Encyclopédie, Vol. VII Marine, Forges des Ancres, 1763: Plate X. anchor was let go. When the wind turned both anchors would lie out ahead of the ship. In the Southern Hemisphere the winds shift in the opposite direction, causing the procedure to be reversed. The construction of eighteenth century anchors is described in great detail in several works from this period (Figure 16). They were largely forged in naval dockyards, and made up of pieces of iron welded together. Welding in the eighteenth century signified the joining of heated metal by pressure, usually applied by hammers. The shank was formed round by a number of small bars hooped together in a bundle. Then, slices or wedges of iron were driven into the open parts. Because people were able to hammer them in only about an inch and a half, the middle of the shank remained hollow. According to Pering (1819), the French, Spanish, Dutch, and some English anchors, have been manufactured of small flat bars, placed indiscriminately in the shank and arms. Once the shank was finished, the arms and flukes, which were prepared in the same way, were welded onto it. The large anchor ring was welded into the shank as well. Bands to secure the two parts of the wooden stock were prepared on a smaller forge (Curryer 1999:63). There was a large drawback to this method: since the hammering process was incapable of expelling all the air bubbles, and the shank was hollow in the middle, some parts such as the join of the arms and the shank were relatively weak, causing the arms to break off more easily. This problem was augmented by the use of inferior quality iron. Furthermore, there was no standardized way of producing an anchor. As Pering 32 Figure 19. Anchor drawings from Cotsell’s A Treatise on Ships’ Anchors (1859). Top left and middle: anchors of about 73 hundredweight dating to around 1800. The left type was used by the French, the middle type by the Dutch, Danish and Swedish navies. Top right: English eighteenth-century admiralty anchor. Bottom left and middle: improved English designs by Richard Pering from the 1810’s and 1820’s respectively. The left anchor, first produced in 1813 and adopted for use in 1815, had smaller flukes and a shorter shank than the Old Admiralty Longshank. The middle anchor, designed in the 1820’s, was first produced in 1835 and had significantly larger flukes than the Admiralty anchor seen on the bottom right. The shanks of Pering’s anchors had an oval sectional form, compared to a round section of Admiralty shanks. The sections of the arms were oval as well, although the sections of the arms on his improved type were quite pointy (Figure 17). Bottom right: Admiralty anchor first used around 1840. This type is also known as Sir William Parker’s anchor. put it: “each dockyard had its peculiar mode of manufacture; every master-smith, and his workmen, conceiving their own plan to the best” (Pering 1819:30). Pering developed new methods of welding and heating the iron, which improved the quality of anchors – and especially the strength of the crown – from the early nineteenth century onwards. The use of better quality iron further improved the strength of the anchor. The nineteenth century saw the development of the pickaxe anchor, whereby the 33 straight arms of the English anchor were replaced by curved ones (Figure 19). As has been shown previously, the arms of Dutch anchors came to have a stronger curve between c. 1820 and 1830. This minor adjustment actually made a big difference: with straight arms there exists considerable resistance to penetration, because the entire anchor must move longitudinally before the arm can bury itself; but with curved arms the weight of shank and upper arm alone suffice to bury the anchor in soft bottoms without longitudinal displacement. The more the arms are at a right angle to the shank, the greater the penetration. On most European anchors the iron stock was introduced in small types at the end of the eighteenth and throughout the first half of the nineteenth century. Although wooden stocks were gradually replaced by iron ones, they remained in use aboard naval vessels with timber hulls until at least the 1850’s. Even up to 1856 anchors weighing more than three tons had wooden stocks. In 1819 it was noted by Pering that only small anchors had iron stocks. The iron stock seen on Figure 18 was movable, but the spherical stops at the ends prevented it from getting detached. One side of these stocks was bent, so that when this side was moved towards the shank, the stock was rotated and could be stowed parallel to the shank. During the first half of the nineteenth century various other improvements and variations followed, such as the Trotman anchor. This type was constructed in two parts: the crown and arms were one part and were held in the fork by a bolt, which allowed them to swivel so that when one arm was dug into the sea bed the other pressed hard on the shank (Curryer 1999:78). Anchors from this period can best be identified by examining their flukes (Figure 17). Stockless anchors, made of cast instead of wrought iron, were already being developed in the first half of the nineteenth century, although they only came into general use after the 1850’s. They had the big advantage of being able to be easily stowed into the hawse pipe, thus Figure 17. Fluke shapes of nineteenth century anchors. From Cotsell’s A Treatise on Ships’ Anchors (1859). 34 Figure 18. An iron-stocked Admiralty anchor. reducing the number of men needed to handle the anchor. The stockless anchor remained in favour until the 1960’s, after which it was replaced by high holding power anchors which are used until the present day. 35 36 5. Cast-iron Cannon The appearance of cannon in the fourteenth century signalled the end of single-handed combat. Although inaccurate and inefficient, the roundelades, pots de fer and bombards of Late-Medieval times made their mark on history and in the following centuries the cannon they evolved into became the most influential piece of artillery on the battlefield. Their influence on naval warfare was perhaps even greater. During the European expansion cannon became widespread throughout the world, and as a result they can now be found in nearly every area that came to be colonized by the European sea powers. As has been shown before, the firing of a cannon could also have an important symbolic meaning, as was the case with the saluting of a flag to recognize a country’s sovereignty. Without cannon in all their forms and types, the course of human history would undoubtedly have been very different. Since the cannon has a very complex and rich history, even a discussion of all the types used in the seventeenth, eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries would be too elaborate and a large part would not be relevant to the current investigation. Therefore, this chapter will focus on naval cast-iron cannon from the period in which St. Eustatius first became colonized until the Dutch regained permanent control of the island. These cannon were used on ships and garrisons in European overseas territories. Their handling, production, and the various types of cannon made, used and traded by different nations will be discussed. Before extrapolating on these topics, however, it is important first to get acquainted with cannon terminology. Terminology The term ‘cannon’ is derived from the Greek word kanun and the Latin canna, both meaning tube (Norris 2000: IX). In addition to cannon, which are often called guns, two similar types of artillery were in use during the colonial period: howitzers and mortars. Although they operate on the same principles, there are some differences between these three types of artillery. Cannons have a barrel length of at least twenty times the diameter of the bore (the calibre) and shoot at an angle of no more than twenty degrees. A howitzer, which can shoot at an angle of 45 degrees or more, has a barrel length that is normally shorter than that of the cannon, usually between twelve and twenty calibres. A mortar, designed for very high-angle fire, has a barrel that is normally less than twelve calibres long. For many years artillery 37 designers have been combining elements of all three types, so it is often difficult to tell exactly what designation to give to a weapon. A further distinction that can be made is between muzzle loading and breech loading artillery. In a breech loading weapon, the projectile is inserted or loaded at the rear of the barrel, while in a muzzle loading weapon the projectile, and usually also the propellant charge, are loaded from the forward, open end of the barrel. The artillery relevant to the current investigation are all muzzle loading. From the latter half of the seventeenth century onwards cannon were described by the weight of the projectile they fired (e.g. 12-pounder, 32-pounder, etc.) A cannon consists of multiple parts, some of which are not always recognized in the literature. Figure 20 provides a complete terminology of the main elements a cannon is comprised of. The mouth is the part through which the cannonball leaves the cannon. The inner portion of the gun barrel (the tube) is called the bore, a term that is also used to refer to the diameter of the tube (the calibre). The bore is always a little larger than the diameter of the cannonballs used in the cannon, to prevent them from being jammed. The front face that muzzle mouth; second reinforce chase trunnion first reinforce dolphin inner portion of barrel: bore muzzle astragal second reinforce ring (chase girdle) first reinforce ring vent field (breech) cascabel touch hole (vent) first reinforce (or vent field) astragal button base ring (breech ring) Figure 20. Cannon terminology. Plan and side view of a decorated cast-bronze gun from the Spanish Armada (1588) wreck La Trinidad Valencera. 38 Figure 21. Equipment needed to load, fire Figure 22. Officer on board the HMS Superb. The and clean a gun. From Halberstadt’s The guns are secured and covered against the World’s Greatest Artillery (2002). weather. This photograph was taken in 1845. contains the bore is called the muzzle. This name is also used to refer to the very front portion of the barrel if a reinforcing ring known as a muzzle astragal is present. The chase is the hollow center of the cannon, located between the muzzle and the trunnions. The trunnions are cylindrical posts of solid metal mounted at a cannon’s center axis that allow the barrel to tilt when mounted on a carriage. The dolphins are the lifting handles that are sometimes fitted on the top (almost exclusively on bronze cannon). The part behind the chase is called the reinforce. It is thicker than the chase and consists of two parts (first and second reinforce) if it is divided by the first reinforce ring. This ring, together with the muzzle astragal, the second reinforce ring, the first reinforce astragal, and the base ring, are strengthened portions of the barrel made to withstand the stress of firing. The vent field is the part located between the base ring and the first reinforce astragal. This is the part in which the ignition of the charge takes place. The vent is the hole in the vent field that allows access to the cartridge for ignition. The part of the cannon behind the base ring is called the cascabel, the rounded tip of which is called the button. Handling naval cannon The loading, firing and cleaning of naval guns is described in great detail in several works from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The sequence during the latter half of the eighteenth century was as follows: (1) silence: everyone had to listen to the officers, (2) cast loose your gun: the lashings holding the cannon against the bulwarks were loosened and coiled on deck, and were replaced by breech lashings that would take up the gun’s recoil, (3) level your gun: the crew hefted the cannon barrel so it would fit through the gunport, (4) take 39 Figure 23. Two Blomefield pattern guns on a battery in the West Indies. The guns are mounted on an iron (left) and a wooden carriage. The iron type was patented in 1761. Both guns are fitted with a firing lock. This was a flintlock attached to the vent area of the cannon that fired a blast of flame at the vent. Most used a cord system to trigger the lock's firing action. This system made cannon firing safer, since it allowed them to be fired ‘on demand’. It was first introduced by the British Royal Navy in 1755. From Henry’s British Napoleonic Artillery. out your tompion: the stoppers that had protected the open muzzle of the gun were taken out, (5) run out your gun: the crew shoved the cannon forward so its muzzle protruded through the port, (6) prime: a bit of gunpowder was sprinkled into the touch hole, (7) point your gun: the gun was elevated to the height of the target, (8) fire: a crew member touched his match to the powder hole and the cannonball was discharged with a deafening blast, causing the carriage to leap backwards, (9) spunge your gun: a crew member shoved a sponge on a long staff into a bucket of water and down the muzzle of the cannon to put out any remains of fire, (10) load with cartridge: a bag of gunpowder was shoved into the cannon’s muzzle and pushed down the length of the barrel with a long rammer; a wad was shoved behind it to hold it in place. (11) shot your gun: the muzzle was loaded with shot and another wad which were rammed down to the cartridge, (12) put in your tompion: the tompion was put into the muzzle of the cannon, (13) house your gun: the gun was hauled inboard, ready for securing, and (14) secure your gun: the gun was secured with muzzle lashings. The cannon were stowed loaded, so that they were ready for use when needed in battle. A ship would have its largest guns on the lower decks so that it did not become top heavy. On the rail of the top deck small swivel guns were mounted. The number of men in a gun crew depended upon the size of the cannon. “One man to every 500 pounds of metal” was the old saying, meaning that a 32-pounder (weighing about 3,000 kg) had a crew of thirteen men (Munday 1998:17). When a ship was engaged in battle at both sides, a crew would operate two cannon opposite each other. Every crewmember had a specific task such as 40 sponging, loading or running out the gun. Everyone in the crew was drilled to be familiar with every duty, in case a crewmember got wounded during battle and needed to be replaced. On the garrisons in the West Indies there were often not enough gunners available to operate all the cannon. On these islands there were usually a number of batteries which contained guns. When present, soldiers would make up the shortfall. Aiming a cannon at a moving ship was a difficult and strenuous task, especially at night when visibility was poor. The gun crew had to manoeuvre the carriage by hand, frequently causing it to crack or collapse under the stress (Chartrand 2003:14). Furthermore, aiming through a high embrasure provided a limited field of fire. All these factors ensured that cannon in the colonies were rarely effective. Guns on ships were mounted on wooden carriages with wooden wheels that would not damage the deck when the gun recoiled (Figures 21 and 22). Garrison guns could be mounted on larger wooden or iron carriages, which had iron or wooden wheels (Figure 23). The iron carriage, introduced in 1810, was preferable in warm climates where a wooden carriage would be vulnerable to rot. Guns could be elevated to desired heights by an elevating screw, which could raise or lower a wedge on which the edge of the barrel rested. Carriages were stepped at the rear, so that a handspike could be inserted to lever up the heavy breech end and more wedges could be inserted. Although every nation had its preferred carriage design, there was no real standardization because most carpenters made their own types of carriages. Ordinary cannonballs weren’t the only type of projectile a cannon would fire. There was a large variety of shot available, designed to serve specific purposes. Examples are cannonballs that were attached to each other by a chain (loose shot) or bar (bar shot), small bits of iron put into a cartridge (case shot), and iron balls put into a thick canvas bag (grape shot). The first two types were used against ships, especially to damage their rigging, masts and spars, while the latter two were used specifically against people (Puype 1990:19). The manufacture of iron guns The first large-scale production of cast-iron cannon and cannonballs was started in 1543 by the Englishman William Hogge, followed by Louis de Geer in Liege and Sweden in the 1620’s and many others in the following centuries. This relatively late introduction was due to the unreliable casting quality in the preceding period. As a result, guns were cast heavier to sustain the shock of discharge and became too heavy. Through improvements of its furnaces, England became the leading producer of cast-iron cannon in the early seventeenth century. The process of cannon manufacture started with the construction of a mould on a turning frame. First, a model of the barrel was built up on a wooden spindle which rested on a brick firebox. Then rope was wound tightly around the wood until the general shape of the tube was established, after which a layer of clay that further approximated the tube shape was 41 Figure 24. Various stages in the manufacture of cast cannon. These watercolours were made by either Jan or Pieter Verbruggen in the late eighteenth century and are part of a private collection. Top: drying of the mould over a fire. Middle: simultaneous casting of six cannon. Bottom: boring of the barrel. 42 added. Next, the model was shaped using either conventional cutting tools or a metal edged modelling board. A small fire was then lit beneath the model to slowly dry it. Before the mould could be made, cylindrical forms for the trunnions needed to be attached. The whole model was then coated with wax which acted as a mould release agent. The mould material, consisting of clay and sand bound together with animal hair or dung, would then be applied in layers. Each layer was allowed to dry slowly over the fire. The first layer was often strengthened with a rope and when the mould was finished it was further reinforced with iron bands. The entire object was then removed from the turning frame so that the model could be dislodged with a hammer and taken out of the mould. The mould was then fired again to harden it and remove all the moisture. A separate mould for the cascabel was made in a similar way (De Beer 1991:55). The next step was the actual casting. The iron used for this was melted in a blast furnace. The two cannon moulds were placed into a casting pit with the cascabel downwards. An extension for extra casting material, called a deadhead, was placed on top of the muzzle. The deadhead also insured an even weight of metal to fill the mould. A clay channel leading from the gate of the furnace to the opening of the mould was then constructed, allowing the molten iron to flow into the top of the mould. Multiple guns were casted simultaneously in this way. After a few days the casting was unearthed and the clay hammered off. The excess material formed during casting at the muzzle of the cannon was cut off and the trunnions were rounded. Next, it was time for the most precise job in the whole process: the boring of the barrel. This was done using a number of steel tipped iron bars that were powered by water or horses. In the mid-eighteenth century the Dutchman Jan Verbruggen invented a method for horizontally drilling out gunbarrels. Previously, this was done vertically. The bore had to be perfectly straight and round and its diameter had to be accurate to within 0.5 millimeters. Iron guns were often cast hollow with a core, called a newel, placed in the mould. The core was held in place with iron rods which became incorporated into the gun. Using this method the barrel only had to be bored another few millimetres. Because this method had a negative effect on the quality of the metal surrounding the core, it was preferred that iron guns were cast solid and then bored out completely. After boring, the last step in the manufacturing process was the drilling of the vent through which the charge would be ignited. Finally, the cannon was thoroughly examined and tested a number of times before being taken into service. Bronze vs. iron guns Throughout the sixteenth century most guns were made of bronze and wrought iron. Bronze was long considered the superior metal for ordnance manufacture. From the beginning of the 43 seventeenth century onwards, improvements in the manufacturing process of cast-iron guns caused them to become extensively used on merchant vessels and in the naval service in various countries. By the end of this century, cast-iron ordnance had achieved such a high quality that the production of bronze guns was reduced, and by the 1770’s most navies had abandoned them almost completely. There were three main advantages of the cast-iron gun compared to their bronze equivalents. First, it heated up slower and maintained its structural strength when fired frequently during one action. Second, it had a greater longevity. Third, it was six to ten times cheaper to manufacture. The bronze ordnance on a ship could be more expensive than the entire vessel. As the principle maritime powers continued to increase the size of their navies in the seventeenth century, this cost became excessively high (Meide 2002:9). There were, however, a number of factors that made bronze guns preferable. Firing an iron cannon was a lot riskier than firing a bronze one. Bronze guns could deform and tear open, while iron guns could burst without warning and fly to pieces, injuring or killing nearby personnel. Furthermore, although bronze is 20% heavier than iron, it is stronger. As a result, bronze guns were thinner and lighter than their iron counterparts. Bronze was also easier to cast, could be re-cast, and could be easily embellished with decoration. Bronze guns were often heavily decorated and were considered true pieces of art. British guns Although there were many foundries that produced cast-iron guns, there are only a small number of basic types that were extensively used in the Dutch, French and English overseas colonies in the period we are concerned with. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries there were two main producers of cast-iron guns, Great Britain being one of them. Apart from producing guns for its own navy, merchant ships and trading companies, it also produced guns for export. Great Britain supplied the Dutch Republic, Spain, Sicily, Russia, Turkey and Morocco. There were numerous gunfounders in England, the most famous of which was located at Woolwich. In general, there were two classes of cannon manufacturers: foundries that cast cannon for the government establishments and those that supplied private organizations (e.g. merchant ships). The manufacturers were expected to produce their guns to a government design, resulting in a remarkable similarity of guns from different founders. There were four basic types of guns in use in British garrison and naval service between 1650 and 1820 (Figure 25). The earliest is the Rose and Crown gun. This gun, in use from 1650 until 1715, exhibits a long, graceful profile with the trunnions situated below the barrel’s centreline and a rather plain, unadorned cascabel. Characteristic are the single bands 44 I II III IV Figure 25. The four basic types of British cast-iron cannon. I. “Rose and Crown” type 4-pounder made at the Heathfield furnace in East Sussex; recovered from the Queen Anne’s Revenge shipwreck site. II. Borgard pattern gun, made at the Ashburnham furnace and currently on display in the Tower of London. III. Armstrong pattern 12-pounder made by John Fuller in 1745; on display in the Tower of London. IV. Blomefield pattern 32-pounder made by Walker & Company; on display at the Garrison, St. Mary’s, Isles of Scilly. on either side of the trunnions and the raised decorative “Tudor Rose and Crown” motif cast into the upper face of its second reinforce. In the early part of the eighteenth century, armies and navies started standardizing the dimensions and calibres of their artillery. In England the Danish soldier Albert Borgard was charged to develop a uniform pattern of cannon of varying sizes. This led to the development of the Borgard pattern gun, manufactured from 1716 until 1725. This type of gun also has a “Tudor Rose and Crown” mark cast onto the second reinforce, but can be distinguished from 45 its predecessor by the two bands in front of the trunnions and the flared, bell-shaped muzzle. When John Armstrong became Surveyor General of Ordnance in 1722, he wanted to improve, and add his own stamp to, the standard designs developed by Borgard. By 1725 he had developed a complex series of proportions which governed the dimensions of every section of the cannon. The Armstrong pattern gun he developed could be cast to the same specifications by any foundry. It was manufactured until 1794, although it remained in use on British warships as late as 1808. This cannon, just like the Borgard pattern gun, has two bands in front of the trunnions and one band behind, although the front bands on the Armstrong gun were situated closer to the trunnions. Instead of a “Rose and Crown”, this type has a raised motif of the Royal ciphers GR2 or GR3 (George II or George III) cast into the upper face of its second reinforce. Another characteristic of this gun is the vent block at the touch hole. Once John Armstrong had finished his basic design for British artillery in 1725, only marginal changes to the template occurred over the next 70 years. During the late eighteenth century, however, the British navy began replacing his type by the Blomefield pattern gun. Designed by Inspector of the Artillery Thomas Blomefield, his new design was manufactured from 1787 until 1815. Although it never fully replaced the earlier types, it became the primary British naval gun during the Napoleonic wars. It is more heavily reinforced in the breech than the Armstrong models, and has less of a muzzle swell. Further, its design is much simpler than that of its predecessor. It lacks a lot of the more decorative features at the cascabel to ensure a uniform thickness of metal. The Blomefield design has very simple single bands on either side of the trunnions, and just like the Armstrong type it has the Royal cipher GR3 cast into the second reinforce. Its most characteristic feature is a breeching loop cast above the cascabel through which a restraining rope passed for shipboard use (Kinard 2007:114). Swedish guns Towards the mid-seventeenth century England was struck by an energy crisis which was the result of deforestation for the burning of charcoal that was used in the many furnaces. After growing complaints, the House of Commons prohibited the export of cannon from England (Wakeren 1993). In this way, Sweden came to dominate the European market for cast-iron guns from the middle of the seventeenth until the end of the eighteenth century (thereafter England recovered her leading position as major exporter). Swedish cannon were produced at a number of foundries, such as those at Huseby, Stafsjö, Åker and Ehrendal. The most important and famous was the Finspång foundry. In 1627 this foundry was taken over by Louis de Geer, who began to produce and export Swedish cast-iron guns (Roth 1996:28). A year later he secured the Swedish crown monopoly for gunfounding. Because the Dutch did not have iron deposits, enough wood or coal to burn, or foundries that could cast large objects, it was easier to move the founders to Sweden than it was to import everything a foundry 46 Finbanker type A Finbanker type B Finbanker type C Finbanker type D Swedish naval gun Swedish naval gun Hul bunder Figure 26. Swedish cast-iron guns. Drawings from the Søtøjhusbogen, 1771. 47 needed (Gerry de Vries, personal communication). The cannon produced at Finspång, known as Finbankers (an English corruption of the Swedish word "Finspangerer" or "one from Finspång"), were to a large extent copies of the early-seventeenth-century English Demi Culverin. They were continued to be cast throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and constituted nearly one third of the total Swedish production. Swedish guns were not only used by the Swedes, but also exported through Amsterdam to Denmark, the Dutch Republic, England, Spain, France, and to anyone else who would buy them. Finbankers can be divided into four different types (Figure 26). Characteristic of type A are two broad bands of rings on either side of the trunnions, which are each made up of five to seven thin mouldings with a thicker middle astragal. The same is true for the muzzle astragal. The end of the muzzle slopes in a series of thin mouldings, as does the cascabel. Type B only differs from type A by having a broad and narrow band on both sides of the trunnions. Type C has narrower second reinforce rings and a thinner muzzle astragal than the other two types. Its cascabel can also differ markedly, in that it is not made up of as many mouldings as the other types’ cascabels. Type D differs from the other types by having only one broad ring in front and behind the trunnions. Finbanker type guns were also cast in England, and these can be distinguished from their Swedish equivalents by their shorter, thicker button and more parallel reinforces. The Swedish Finbankers have a constant taper from the base-ring to the muzzle astragal and are marked with an F (Finspång) on the trunnion face(s). The other trunnion face can be marked with the year of casting. Occasionally they have other trunnion marks, such as GS, DB, H, or W, indicating their manufacture at other foundries. Over the years guns that were not cast at Finspång, but closely resemble these patterns, have thus been called Finbankers. Because this is highly confusing and misleading, in this survey the term Finbanker will only be used for guns that were actually cast at Finspång. Swedish guns can further be distinguished from cannon made in other countries by their weight marks, which are in roman numerals. Apart from Finbankers there are a number of other Swedish guns, each with their own characteristics. Swedish naval guns are easily recognizable in that on the top of the first reinforce they are marked with a crown and the year of casting (Frantzen 2001:21). Other easily recognizable Swedish patterns are the flad- og hulbrundere (with flat and hollow bottom). These types are characterized by a very flat cascabel (Figure 26). The only cast-iron guns made by the Dutch were cast in Liege between 1817 and 1831, when Belgium was part of the Netherlands. France also used Liege guns in the early nineteenth century. Although the Dutch were casting their own bronze guns, for their supply of iron ordnance they depended entirely on imports, coming almost exclusively from Sweden. 48 French guns France and Denmark (who had a number of furnaces in Norwegian lands) and some German states also had a small cast-iron cannon industry, but this was not sufficient for large scale export. In the eighteenth century France set up a number of local furnaces. The main French naval foundry, located at Indret near Nantes, started casting guns in 1778 and remained an important gunmaker during the Napoleonic era. Guns from this foundry can be recognized by the word INDRET or simply IN on one trunnion and a fleur-de-lis on the other. Other French foundries that cast iron guns during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries were Ruelle, Nevers, Le Creusot and Saint-Gervais. French naval guns can have the word MARINE etched into the barrel. In the eighteenth century the regulations for marking French cannon changed a number of times and in practice the marking instructions were followed rather loosely by the foundries. French cast-iron cannon found on coastal batteries are naval guns that were either too old or too hazardous for use at sea but still useful on land, or new guns that were of good quality but were too heavy for use at sea. Eighteenth- and early-nineteenthcentury types usually have single bands on either side of the trunnions (Figure 27). Although the French already had regulations regarding the manufacture of cannon in the seventeenth century, at this time there were large differences between guns cast in different regions. French iron cannon cast in the region of Nevers were heavily influenced by the Dutch Finbanker design, with thick bands on either side of the trunnions, while guns from the Périgord region have much thinner, single bands, and a muzzle that shows almost no swell. Throughout the eighteenth century French naval guns changed design several times. French artillery was first standardized in 1732 by General Vallière. His system contained guns of five different calibers: 4-, 8-, 12-, 16- and 24-pounders, all with specific lengths, proportions, weights and methods of manufacture. The conical shape of the trunnions on early-eighteenth-century pieces was progressively abandoned in favour of a cylindrical shape. In 1758 the thickness of the metal was slightly reduced, and the form of the cascabel changed from convex to concave. In 1766 French naval guns were reduced in length and weight, and new proportions were laid down by the Director of Naval Ordnance, Vicomte Bigot de Morogues. However, many officers still considered them too long. In 1778 a new table of proportions was drawn up and they were shortened again. Because the new type was found to be too heavy, five years later the 1766 pattern started to be produced again, alongside the new type. In 1786 the new Inspector-General of the Corps Royal de l’Artillerie des Colonies, General de Manson, was requested to design a new system of naval ordnance. From 1786 until 1820 guns were made lighter and featured a much cleaner design than the previous models, with mouldings either removed or simplified and trunnions that were reinforced by a 49 1680-1700 1700-1758 1758-1766 1766-1778 1778-1786 1786-1820 1820-1824 Figure 27. French naval and garrison service cannon. Drawings by Jean Boudriot. 50 rimbase which ran parallel to the chase (Chartrand 2003:34). Around 1810 a small patch parallel to the vent channel was added in order to provide better support for the gunlocks. In 1820 it was decided that guns had to be made lighter, so that they were easier to use on the new ship types that were introduced in this period. The new cannon were inspired by the 1786 pattern, but they included a breeching ring that was copied from the English Blomefield gun (Boudriot 1996:85). Another modification is the rimbase of their trunnions, which now runs parallel to the second reinforce instead of the chase. With the exception of the long 30-pounder, these guns don’t have a vent field astragal, making them easily distinguishable from earlier patterns. A word of caution From all this it can be concluded that the presence of an English or Swedish gun doesn’t necessarily signify the presence of English or Swedish people. To make matters worse, information about international trade isn’t always useful either, since nations also used guns they captured during battle. However, a gun often contains marks that can provide information about the country that used it, such as the coats of arms of the Dutch Admiralties, which are frequently found on cannon used by the Dutch Republic. These symbols, along with the shape of the gun, maker’s marks, weight marks, royal ciphers, and a number of other possible marks can help the researcher in identifying a gun. It should be kept in mind that guns could be used for many years, so their date of manufacture only gives us a terminus post quem for their usage. Their date of manufacture, however, doesn’t say anything about the exact age of the feature they are associated with. In the case of similar maker’s marks or when marks are obscured by, for example, coral encrustation, one can only identify a gun by its shape. Yet only by studying the history of the region in which a cannon is found can one find out exactly how it ended up on its present location and tell the complete story behind it. 51 52 6. Research methodology From 16 February until 16 March 2010 sixteen anchors and 72 cannon were documented. The forts and batteries of Statia have been surveyed a number of times in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s by Han Jordaan, Frans Bubberman, Philippe Moret, and Bryan Paul Howard. On the basis of the results of these four surveys it was determined at which forts and batteries cannon are still present. The fortifications that, according to these past four surveys, house no cannon have not been investigated. A complete list of the forts and batteries on St. Eustatius can be found in Appendix 5. In addition to these surveys, information provided by local people such as island archaeologist Grant Gilmore and a number of dive guides helped to locate additional cannon. The anchors were all located with the help of the aforementioned local people as well. Only regular dive- and snorkelsites were investigated. No surveys outside of the sites where cannon and anchors are known to be present were carried out. The representativeness of this sample will be discussed in the next chapter. The objects on land were photographed using an Olympus μ1010 digital camera at a resolution of 10 megapixels. Since most objects are still in situ, they were not moved or modified in any way during this investigation. A number of objects were positioned on the side or upside down, or were partially buried. Since most objects were lying on or near archaeological sites, no digging around partially buried objects was performed. All the objects were lying on the surface; no excavations have been conducted to locate buried artifacts. The GPS-coordinates of the land objects were obtained using Google Earth. The underwater objects were accessed using SCUBA (Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus) equipment. Nine dives were made at depths ranging from four to twenty meters. A Sea&Sea DX500 digital camera and an Olympus μ TOUGH 8000 digital camera were used to photograph the submerged artifacts at resolutions of 5 and 12 megapixels respectively. As with the land artifacts, most objects under water are still in situ, so they were not moved or modified in any way. No excavations were performed around partially buried objects. Whilst documenting (Figure 28), it was made sure that no marine life, including that on the objects itself, was harmed. The GPS-coordinates for the submerged artifacts were obtained from STENAPA. These are the coordinates of the mooring lines for the dive sites where the objects were located, and thus do not represent the precise locations of the artifacts. 53 Figure 28. Divers measuring anchor # 1005. Left Ruud Stelten, on the right dive guide Stefan Blom. All of them are, however, located within a ten minute swim from the mooring lines. All objects were documented in three steps: measuring, photographing, and describing. On land two (and occasionally more) people were involved in documenting, while under water usually two or three people were involved. Because of practical difficulties and time constraints, not all measurements could be taken under water. In these cases it was made sure that at least the most important measurements were obtained. All anchors are entered into the online NAS database on www.biganchorproject.com. 54 7. Results and Discussion Cannon: Results In all, 72 cannon were found: 59 on land and thirteen under water. After an extensive survey, the rumour of a possible cannon in front of the Gin House could not be confirmed. All guns were found to be made of cast iron. The ones under water were all too encrusted to be identified, although some suggestions as to possible countries of manufacture can be made (see Appendix 4). Apart from # 72 and 60, of which the latter was found to be a 6-pounder measuring 238 cm, the lengths of the underwater guns vary between 100 and 176 cm, indicating that they are of small poundage. Out of the 59 guns on land, the country of manufacture (Figure 29) was determined for 52 of these (88%), while the foundry they were cast at (Figure 30) was determined in 36 of 52 cases (69%). On St. Eustatius, guns cast at various foundries in at least five countries can be found. An indication of the age of the gun can be made in 51 of 59 cases (86%). A precise or near-precise year of casting was determined for 17 out of these 51 guns (33%). Twenty-four guns (i.a. Finspång, Carron, Ruelle) were found to be dating to the late eighteenth century, while twenty-five guns (i.a. Fossum, Finspång, Åker, Heathfield) were cast in the late seventeenth or early eighteenth century. Two cannon could have been cast throughout the eighteenth century. For 54 out of 72 guns (75%) the pounder designation was determined (Figure 31). A general judgment of the conditions of the guns on land (damage, corrosion) was made as well (Figure 32). The variations between guns from the same foundry were also examined. It was found that the 3-pounder Finbankers cast in 1786 have a length range of 188.3-188.8 cm and a weight range of 471-485 kg. The average length of these guns is 188.6 cm, while their weight averages 477.7 kg. The French 4-pounders cast at Ruelle in or around 1772 have a length range of 178.5-180.4 cm, and measure an average 179 cm. The 12-pounders cast by Kai Børting have a length range of 267-270 cm, with an average of 268 cm. Last, late-eighteenthcentury swivel guns were found to measure between 72.5 and 77.8 cm, but these may have been cast at different foundries. 55 16 14 2% 12 4% 10 8 21%22 6 21%2 4 21% 2 31% 0 Sweden Norway France England Scotland Spain Figure 29. Countries of manufacture of the Statian cannon (those determined with certainty). Finspång, Sweden (12) Fossum, Norway (11) Ruelle, France (6) Åker, Sweden (3) Heathfield, England (2) Carron, Scotland (2) Figure 30. Foundries where the Statian cannon were cast (those determined with certainty). 0.5-pounder (5) 2-pounder (1) 3-pounder (9) 4-pounder (13) 6-pounder (8) 8-pounder (1) 12-pounder (14) 18-pounder (2) 24-pounder (1) Figure 31. Pounder designations of the Statian cannon (those determined with certainty). 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 very bad bad reasonable good Figure 32. The conditions of the guns on land. 56 very good Cannon: Discussion Although the history of cannon on St. Eustatius is closely connected to the history of the forts, batteries, and ships that housed them, it would be too elaborate to discuss the histories of Statian defenses in great detail. For this, the reader is referred to J. Hartog’s book De Forten, Verdedigingswerken en Geschutstellingen van St. Eustatius en Saba. I will focus mostly on the cannon themselves, starting with the ones in the most famous fort on the island. Fort Oranje Contrary to what some people believe, the guns that are currently displayed in Fort Oranje (SE128) are not the ones that fired the famous First Salute in 1776. These cannon were rejected and replaced by bronze guns in 1778. The 1776 guns were either thrown off the cliff, taken away by the French in 1795, or bought by merchants in the nineteenth century to be processed as old iron or to be put on display in foreign museums. A combination of these explanations is possible as well. However it may be, today no one knows exactly what happened to them or where they are. Currently there are eight 3-pounders on carriages displayed in the fort (Figure 33). Six of these are Finbankers and two are Armstrong guns, all cast in 1786. The crowns on the muzzle face indicate that these Finbankers were probably cast for the Swedish navy. Old records (Appendix 5) show that eight 3-pounders were present in Fort Oranje in 1801. This provides us with a terminus ante quem for the arrival of the eight 3-pounders on St. Eustatius. Sometime between 1786 and 1801 (probably early in this period) these guns found their way to Statia. The Amsterdam proof mark indicates that they were proof fired here between 1786 and 1790. The Return of Ordnance (Appendix 5) shows 32 guns present in Fort Oranje in 1801, of which only twelve were serviceable. We know that there were 6-pounders and 12pounders, used for salutes, present in the fort in 1829. Guns with these calibers were listed ‘unserviceable’ in the 1801 Return, so the 1829 guns must have been employed in the fort sometime between 1801 and 1829. A photograph taken by Frederick A. Fenger during his Caribbean sailing trip in 1911 shows the Finbankers and the Armstrong guns in Fort Oranje. An undated postcard, perhaps even older, shows these guns from the other side of the fort (Figure 33). Various pictures taken throughout the twentieth century indicate that these cannon have never since left this location. In addition to these eight cannon, there are three Norwegian guns present in Fort Oranje, which are embedded in the monument commemorating the visit of Admiral Michiel de Ruyter to Statia in 1665 (Figure 33). Their origin is revealed by a gun (# 50) currently found at the Schotsenhoek plantation house. This gun was used as a bollard on the corner of Kerkweg and Fort Oranjestraat until the 1960’s, when the road was paved and the gun disappeared under the pavement. In 2008 it was unearthed and brought over to its current lo57 Figure 33. Top left: an undated postcard showing the guns in Fort Oranje, currently in the Atlas van Stolk collection. Middle left: photograph taken by Frederick A. Fenger in 1911, showing the cannon from the other side of the fort. From the book Alone in the Caribbean (1917). Bottom: the cannon in the fort as they appear today. Top right: the monument in the fort. 58 cation. The type of gun, the way it is painted, and the cannonball in the bore all indicate that this gun served the same purpose as the three cannon incorporated in the monument in Fort Oranje. It is therefore very likely that the cannon from the monument were also employed as bollards somewhere in Oranjestad before 1933, when the monument was erected. Battery Bouillé South of Fort Oranje lies Battery Bouillé (SE69), built by the French in 1781. After the French left the island in 1784, the Dutch continued to use this battery. There is no mention of it in the documentary records after 1800, so it was probably abandoned shortly after this time. Abraham Heyliger’s inventory of 1785 shows that it housed five 24-pounders, two 4pounders, and two howitzers. The 1801 Return of Ordnance lists a 24-, 18-, 12-, and 8pounder at this location. Today there are three guns left: two 12-pounders (# 29 and 30) of which one is English and one is Norwegian, and one French 24-pounder (# 31). It is safe to assume that the latter was employed here by the French in the period 1781-1784. Of the other two guns, one was brought in between 1785 and 1801 and one after 1801. At this time the 12pounders were at least between 60 and 70 (and perhaps even over 100) years old. What happened to the 4-pounders and howitzers is impossible to say, but they might have been thrown off the cliff and ended up on the Twelve Guns site (see below). Figure 34. Cannon # 29 resting on the battery Figure 35. Cannon # 33 at Battery Nassau. wall at Bouillé. 59 Figure 36. Cannon at the Twelve Guns site. Twelve Guns This site is located about 50 meters offshore between Bouillé and Nassau (Figure 36). The cannon ended up on this location in the late nineteenth century. In those days merchants traveled around the Caribbean looking for old cannon that could be used in forts and museums in the United States or that had a value as old iron. Statia was no exception to this. Sometime during the late 1800’s, one merchant had his ship anchored further offshore from the Twelve Guns site, and was transporting cannon in a smaller vessel to his ship. When it hit the rocks it capsized, causing the cannon to fall overboard. The site is called Twelve Guns because often twelve cannon can be seen, depending on the weather conditions. Some people have reported as many as seventeen guns here, while some have never seen more than six. Eight cannon were visible at the time of this survey. Although they were too encrusted to be identified, they are all small caliber guns, ranging from 135 to 176 cm in length. It could be that some of the 4-pounders that are now missing from Bouillé are amongst these. Battery Nassau Further south on Kay Bay we find Battery Nassau (SE66), built by commander Jan de Windt in 1753. It was abandoned shortly after 1801, since there is no mention of this battery in the documents after this time. In 1776 the only cannon present here flew to pieces when firing at an English ship, hereby killing the constable. In 1785 the battery housed five cannon: three 18-pounders and two 12-pounders. Today only one Swedish 12-pounder (# 33) is left. Since 60 Figure 37. Left: Battery De Windt before the restauration. The guns are resting on the battery wall. Photograph taken by R. Apell in 1972. Right: the present situation: the guns are restored to carriages. no 12-pounders outside Fort Oranje appear on the English list of 1781 (Appendix 5), and the English Return of Ordnance shows two 12-pounders and one 4-pounder present at this battery in 1801, this gun must have been brought here in the period 1781-1801. By this time it was between 80 and 100 years old. Battery De Windt This battery (SE8), located at the southernmost tip of the island, was built in 1753 by Jan de Windt, although Johannes Heyliger already constructed the predecessor of this battery five years earlier. After 1785 no mention of it is made in the documentary records, so it was probably abandoned shortly after this time. In 1785 three cannon were present: one 18pounder, one 12-pounder, and one 6-pounder. On the 1801 Return one 18-pounder, one 12pounder, and one 8-pounder are listed. Four guns can be found today: one Swedish 12pounder (# 25), one English 18-pounder (# 26), and two unidentified cannon (# 27 and 28) of which one is burst. The latter two are lying on the cliff edge, while the former two were restored to carriages in 1981. The guns on the cliff edge are probably the 6- and 8-pounders on the aforementioned lists, which means that the guns employed in 1785 and 1801 are still present on this location (Figure 37). In 1781 the English list three 24-pounders at this location, so the two restored guns were brought here between 1781 and 1785. The two guns that are now on carriages date to the late seventeenth or early eighteenth century, so guns of at least 80 years old were used. The guns on the cliff edge were brought in between 1781 and 1801. Because of the battery’s isolated location, these guns were never removed or taken away by merchants. Battery Corre-Corre On the other side of the island, in the southeast, we find Battery Corre-Corre (SE27), also 61 constructed by Jan de Windt in 1753. The name is misleading, though, as it is located several hundred meters south of Corre-Corre Bay. Exactly when this battery was abandoned is unknown. In 1785 it housed two 4-pounders, while in 1801 a 12-pounder was added to the list. These three guns are still present today. The Scandinavian 12-pounder (# 22) was thus brought in sometime between 1785 and 1801. The two 4-pounders (# 20 and 21), French 1766 pattern guns, are of the same type as those found on Panga and Jussac (see below). Therefore they must have been brought in by the French between 1781 and 1784. Battery Concordia Further north, at the end of the airport runway, lies Battery Concordia (SE81). In was built in 1753 by Jan de Windt, but the year in which it ceased to be used is unknown. In 1781 and 1785 three 18-pounders were employed here, while it was home to a 6- and a 4-pounder in 1801. Today two French 4-pounders (# 18 and 19) are present, of which at least one is a 1766 pattern gun. The 6-pounder and one 4-pounder were brought in between 1785 and 1801. The other 4-pounder was brought in after 1801, but had probably already been present at another fortification on the island for about two decades. Guns # 18 and 19 were located in the actual battery in 1991, according to an excavation plan from this year. They were moved to the airport fence after this time. Battery Tumble Down Dick On the western side of the island, on the premises of the Statia Oil Terminal, Battery Tumble Down Dick (SE99) is located. It was built in 1701 by commander Isaac Lamont. The date of abandonment is again unknown. A plan dating to 1740 shows eight cannon employed here. In Figure 38. Battery Tumble Down Dick in 1740. Eight cannon are employed. Source: Algemeen Rijksarchief, Brieven en Papieren St. Eustatius, 1431. 62 Figure 39. Top left: cannon # 21 at Battery Corre-Corre pointing towards St. Kitts. Top right: cannon # 18 at Battery Concordia. Middle left and bottom: the guns at Battery Tumble Down Dick, at the facility of the Statia Terminals. 63 1749 Abraham Heyliger bought a few cannon for this battery on St. Kitts, totaling the number of guns in Tumble Down Dick twenty, of which most were 6-pounders. In 1781 the English replaced the 6-pounders by 18-pounders, and list nine guns fit for use: six 18-pounders, two 9pounders, and one 6-pounder. In 1785 there were 22 guns present at this battery, of which again nine were fit for use: six 18-pounders, two 12-pounders, and one 6-pounder. In 1801 seven serviceable guns were found here: three 12-pounders, two 12-pounder carronades, and two 6-pounders. Today four guns can still be found here: two Norwegian 12-pounders (# 36 and 38), one Norwegian 8-pounder (# 37), and one Swedish 6-pounder (# 39). The Norwegian guns all date to the late seventeenth or early eighteenth century. Exactly when these cannon were employed at Tumble Down Dick is impossible to say. The 6-pounder was probably already here in 1749. The other three guns were brought in sometime between 1701 and 1801. According to Siegfried Lampe, a Statian with an encyclopedic knowledge about the history of the island who passed away last year, the cannon in front of the museum (# 17) comes from this battery. This seems plausible, since that gun is identical to the two 12-pounders that can still be found here. Fort Panga This fort (SE97) was built by the French in 1781 on top of Signal Hill (Figure 40), and was abandoned in 1819 after a hurricane had severely damaged it. It served as a signaling post, and for this purpose the English had put up a 12-pounder carronade here in 1781. In 1785 Panga housed six guns: two 18-pounders, two 12-pounders, one 4-pounder, and a steenstuk Figure 40. Cannon # 41 at Fort Panga, on top of Signal Hill. 64 (a gun used to fire stones or scrap). In 1801 one 6-pounder and two 4-pounders were found here. Today five guns are present at this fort: four French 4-pounders (# 40, 41, 42 and 44) dating to around 1772, and one English 6-pounder (# 43) dating to 1726-1794. The latter was brought here between 1785 and 1801. The 4-pounders were not all employed here at the same time: one was brought in between 1781 and 1785, another between 1785 and 1801, and the remaining two after 1801. All these 4-pounders were, however, brought to the island by the French between 1781 and 1784. Before being employed at Fort Panga, they were probably used on other batteries (such as Bouillé). The 1801 Return shows batteries Rotterdam, Frederick, and Nassau to house 4-pounders, which today are all gone. These guns could have been brought over to Signal Hill as well. Battery Jussac About 220 meters northwest of Fort Panga lies Battery Jussac (SE98). The two are connected by a trench. This battery was built by the French in 1781 as well, and, just like Panga, abandoned in 1819. Three cannon were present in 1785, although the poundage of these is not known. This battery is not listed on the 1801 Return of Ordnance. Today four guns can be found: two French 4-pounders (# 46 and 47) that are identical to the French guns at Fort Panga, one Norwegian 12-pounder dating to the late seventeenth or early eighteenth century, and a 3-pounder Finbanker (# 48) that is identical to the Finbankers in Fort Oranje. Old records show that 249 3-pounders were cast at Finspång in the period 1786-1790. This means that about 50 3-pounders were cast here in 1786. Considering the relative rarity of the guns cast in this year, it is very likely that the seven Finbankers were shipped to St. Eustatius as one batch. Gun # 48 was thus brought to Statia between 1786 and 1801, although exactly when it was employed in Battery Jussac remains unknown. The other three guns at Jussac could have been employed here at any time between 1781 and 1819. Fort Royal At the southernmost point of what is called the ‘Horseshoe Formation’ we find Fort Royal (SE96). This fort was, just like Panga and Jussac, built by the French in 1781 and abandoned in 1819. It 1785 it was home to six guns: a number of 24-pounders and 18-pounders. It is not listed in the English inventory from 1801. Today (Figure 41) we find three Swedish 6pounders, two Swedish 12-pounders, one Norwegian 12-pounder, and one English 12pounder. All these guns date to the late seventeenth or early eighteenth century. Sometime between 1785 and 1819 the heavy guns were replaced by lighter guns, which were at least between 60 and 85 years old at that time. Why the heavier guns were removed from this location is hard to say. Perhaps they were old guns too, or they were deemed useless and were sold because there just weren’t enough gunners to man these heavy guns. 65 Figure 41. The partly buried guns at Fort Royal, overlooking the Caribbean Sea. 66 Figure 42. View of St. Eustatius, with Fort Royal depicted in the bottom right corner. Watercolour by Samuel Fahlberg, made around 1820. Source: Tropenmuseum, Amsterdam. Other guns There are a number of guns that are ex situ, some of which have a known origin. Six guns have been brought up from Oranje Bay: the ones in the museum (# 13-16) and the ones at the SECAR building (# 34 and 35). Numbers 61 and 62 were originally located somewhere else under water, but it is not known exactly where this was. Number 60 was originally located under water next to the pier. There are two guns (# 23 and 24) lying at the foot of the cliffs next to the road in Lower Town. Both of these have their trunnions beaten off, so they were probably ready to be taken away by merchants. These two guns were probably employed in one of the coastal forts or batteries in the vicinity. The original locations of # 12 (Bay Path), 49 (Harbour Office), and 50 (Peterson’s Paradise) could not be determined, although these were most likely employed at one of the nearby forts at some stage as well. How the Spanish cannon (# 12) ended up on Statia is anybody’s guess: it could have been bought/traded or perhaps taken from a captured Spanish ship (a fairly common occurrence in the eighteenth century). Two guns (# 32 and 59) were found to be in someone’s backyard, with one now being at the STENAPA office. Finally, # 72 can perhaps be associated with one of the coastal batteries that are close. Conclusions From old sources it becomes clear that cannon on St. Eustatius hardly played any significant role in its defence. They were often not fit for use, and frequently exploded, killing nearby personnel. Often there was no shot or gunpowder available. The carriages would rot and collapse, and sometimes there weren’t even any carriages for the guns. Furthermore, the ‘gunners’ that operated the cannon were a bunch of amateurs lacking proper training. 67 The results of this survey confirm this situation. At many forts and batteries, even newly built ones, guns that were many decades old were still employed. This explains why the guns of St. Eustatius often did more harm to the people operating them than to the ships they were firing at. They were worn out and should have been replaced a long time ago. It wasn’t until 1781, when the French took control of the island, that new guns started to be imported. However, even then the old English and Scandinavian guns were still being used. It seems that there have been two periods in which a lot of guns were imported, both times after a period of instability and conquest. The first time was during the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries following three turbulent decades in which the island changed hands a number of times. This was also right after the island became the property of the Second Dutch West India Company. The second time was the 1780’s, after the island had been sacked by Rodney and was conquered by the French. The Dutch Republic was always in need of more guns due to the ongoing wars between various European nations. When one foundry could not cast enough guns, they were imported from another. In the late seventeenth century Swedish cast-iron cannon exports declined dramatically as a result of a series of conflicts between Sweden and Denmark. This was also the case at Finspång, where during the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries only a few hundred guns were cast. This explains why only a few Finbankers from this time can be found, and why many cannon from Norway, England and possibly even Prussia were acquired by the Dutch and brought to Statia in this period. In the late eighteenth century, when Finspång’s exports had increased again, more guns from this foundry were shipped to the Golden Rock. In the 1740’s twelve guns were bought for the battery at Tumble Down Dick Bay (although it is not known if these were new or second-hand), but interestingly, it seems that only a few new guns were imported in the period 1750-1780, the time when St. Eustatius reached its economic peak. Since the importance of the island so exponentially increased in these decades, one would logically expect more to have been spent on its defenses, but this does not appear to have been the case: in the mid-eighteenth century a number of new batteries were built, but without proper cannon these were useless. After a few decades of relative peace and stability, neither the merchants on Statia nor the WIC were apparently preoccupied with making sure their emporium would be safe from enemy attacks. Even in the years after the First Salute, when an English attack was imminent, no new guns except for the bronze ones at Fort Oranje appear to have been brought in. When Dutch rule was reinstated and the economy on Statia flourished again in the late 1780’s, the new forts and batteries built by the French, but also Concordia and Corre-Corre, were at least partially equipped with new French guns. At Bouillé, Panga, and Royal they employed heavy 24-pounders and 18pounders. Comparing the English 1781 list with the Dutch inventory right after the French 68 had left shows the French increased firepower on Statia by more than ten guns. Soon after they left, however, the old Scandinavian guns that had been in use for many decades were employed at these fortifications. After the 1780’s only a few more guns found their way to Statia, but no serious attempt at arming the forts and batteries was made again. The distribution map (Appendix 1) shows that most cannon are located on the Caribbean side of the island. The eastern coast is very rocky and the coastline around the northern hills consists, with a few exceptions, of sheer rock faces. Furthermore, seas on the Atlantic side are generally rough. It wasn’t very likely that the enemy would land here. It is therefore not surprising to find only a few guns on this side of the island. In and around Oranjestad is where most cannon can be found. Anchors: Results The number of anchors found totals sixteen: three on land and thirteen under water. In addition, a possible shank of an anchor measuring 254 cm in length was found at the Double Wreck site. Further, an attempt was made to locate the anchor present at Anchor Point, without success. This anchor was later found out to be only about 50 years old, making it not relevant to the current investigation. In total thirteen anchors were identified, while three were incomplete/partially buried. There are three nationalities represented by the anchors: seven are English, five are Dutch, and one is French. Out of these thirteen anchors, nine were found to be dating to the late eighteenth or early nineteenth century. Two anchors are slightly older, while one is slightly younger and one is about a century younger. Out of thirteen anchors nine are kedgers and four are stream or bower anchors. The average Dutch kedger was found to weigh 271 kg and measure 196 cm in length. Although not present on most anchors, it was possible to determine the stock type in eleven cases. Seven anchors have a stock type called ‘wood over’: a wooden stock clamped over the exterior of the shank. Four anchors have a metal stock, of which two the stock is bent. It was further found that all Dutch as well as English anchors (as far as could be determined) with wooden stocks have parallel stock keys. No inscriptions were discovered on any of the anchors. Anchors: Discussion The assemblage of anchors found on Statia is more or less what one would expect to find. Most anchors date to the late eighteenth to early nineteenth century. Trade reached its peak in the late eighteenth century, so these anchors are more likely to fall into the older part of their possible date range. The various nationalities of the anchors – Dutch, French, and English – fit the picture of a contested island between these nations as well. Apart from the three on land (# 1001, 1002, and 1003) and # 1007 all anchors are still in situ. They are mostly found 69 Figure 43. Anchors # 1004 (background) and 1005 at the Double Wreck site. Courtesy of Golden Rock Dive Center / Whitewall Studio NV. on the edges of reefs and are often crooked. This explains how they ended up on their current locations. When an anchor could not be weighed because one of its arms got stuck under a reef, the cable it was attached to was cut and the anchor left behind. The two anchors lying in the sand at Double Wreck (Figure 43) ended up there in a different way. They could have belonged to the ships that sank here, but this can’t be confirmed. Most of the anchors are kedge anchors, which is not surprising, since most of the time there is only a light current on the Caribbean side of the island. In these conditions a kedge anchor would be sufficient to keep a ship in a steady position. With the exception of one (# 1001), the distribution of anchors (Appendix 1) concentrates around the Oranje Bay area. This also falls within the line of expectation, because it was in this area that on any given day during Statia’s economic peak 100 ships would drop anchor. Future research Important to keep in mind is that the artifacts documented during this survey are not the only ones to be found on the island and in the waters around it. In 1779 alone over 3,500 ships entered the port of St. Eustatius. The author was informed by a local dive guide that more cannon and anchors can be found outside of the regular dive sites. He estimates that there are between 50 and 100 anchors (and also a great number of cannon) present on the Caribbean side of the marine park. At the time of completion of this thesis, the author was informed by a SECAR intern that a new anchor had already been discovered near the Twelve Guns site. Many guns have been moved around in the eighteenth century, and in the following 70 century a great number has probably been taken off the island by merchants. In the past many more guns were present on the island. There are likely to be many more guns, but possibly also anchors, buried underneath the sand at the feet of the cliffs. So although this survey has not covered all the cannon and anchors, it has probably covered the majority of objects on land and it gives an idea of what there is to be found under water. Future research, in the form of excavations or a systematic survey of the marine park, will have to reveal more of these artifacts. Sample Representativeness Since, as we have seen under the previous heading, not all cannon and anchors present on and around St. Eustatius were investigated, the following question needs to be asked: how representative is our sample? Cannon imported by all three European powers that Statia changed hands among were found. They date from the middle of the seventeenth to the late eighteenth century, and are located on a large number of different sites. There is a concentration of guns on the leeward side of the island. Although more archaeological work has been carried out on the leeward side than on the windward side, it is on the former that the vast majority of human activity has been taking place over the past four centuries. It can thus be concluded that the cannon sample is representative in terms of variety (types, country of manufacture), spatial distribution, and age. Although only cast-iron guns were found, we have seen that a number of bronze guns were used on Statia as well. Although most cannon on colonial garrisons were made of castiron, the sample is nevertheless not completely representative in terms of material that the cannon are made of. Anchors were found to date to between c.1700 and 1850. They represent three nationalities. Although one would expect the majority of anchors to conform to these two standards, some are expected to fall out of this date range. Because so many different nationalities engaged in commerce on Statia, some are expected to have been made in different countries. In terms of age and nationality this anchor assemblage is therefore perhaps not completely representative. It is, however, representative in terms of function. Most of the time there is only a light current on the leeward side of the island, so one would expect to find the majority of anchors to be kedgers. The majority of anchors are indeed kedgers, but there are also some larger stream and sheet anchors present, perhaps used during hurricanes or tropical storms. As is described above, almost all human activity and archaeological work has been taking place on the leeward side of the island. The possibility of ships wrecking on the windward side can, however, not be ruled out, meaning that the distribution of anchors on just the leeward side is probably not completely representative. 71 72 8. Cultural Heritage Management The only historic objects that people are allowed to take from Statia are the famous blue beads. Because of the great monetary value historic objects can represent, people are often tempted to take more than allowed and in the process deprive Statia of its cultural resources. This happened in 2005, when three cannon were taken off the island illegally by a professor and a student of the University of St. Eustatius School of Medicine. One of the reasons why this could happen is because no one knew exactly where all the cannon were located and as a result their absence was not immediately apparent. This project has resolved that issue. The exact locations of all the known cannon and anchors have now been identified and the objects themselves documented in detail. Should one of these artifacts ever be smuggled off the island, one only has to check the sites identified in Appendix 1 to see which object is missing. Because we now know exactly what these objects look like, what their dimensions are, what marks they bear, and what condition they are in, it would be relatively easy to prove that a particular object suspected to be taken from a particular location on the island is in fact that object. In this way smuggled artifacts that have already reached their destination can still be shown to originate from Statia. There is no mass tourism on St. Eustatius, but the number of tourists and divers visiting the ‘historic gem’ grows steadily every year. Although the island has numerous natural and cultural attractions, so much more could be done to make its history play a greater role for tourists and the local community. Just like has been done with Battery De Windt in the 1980’s, other fortifications such as Bouillé, Panga and Royal could be restored. The cannon can be put on replica carriages so that everyone can enjoy them. Most guns are still in good condition, but eventually they too will deteriorate, so a layer of protective paint or coating should be applied. Signs can be put up with information about the guns, so that people can appreciate the historic value of these artifacts even more. A cannon tour could even be initiated for people who are especially interested in these objects. The possibilities are numerous. The same goes for anchors. Signs with information about them can be put up. The ones on land need a protective coating as well, since these are not in very good condition anymore. Anchor dives could be organized for people who take a special interest in these artifacts. A questionnaire has shown that 11% of the people (tourists and locals) find the 73 historic sites the most important aspect of the Marine Park (MacRae & Esteban 2007:99). This could increase if more information about the submerged archaeological sites and artifacts is provided. It is the author’s opinion that the underwater objects should be left exactly the way they are. No improvements of their appearance, in the form of removing marine life growing on them, should be made. The coral that grows on the artifacts is part of a very fragile marine habitat that is of utmost importance to the local ecosystem. The preservation of this life outweighs the aesthetics of the artifacts. Eventually, as is already the case with anchor # 1012, the artifacts will become incorporated into the coral reefs. Although they won’t be visible anymore at that stage, they will still be there. The reefs will ensure their survival and protect them from looting. In this way, natural and cultural preservation go hand in hand. The ideas put forward here and the methods used in this investigation comply with the basic principles set out by UNESCO in 2001 in its Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. These principles include, but are not limited to: - the in situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage: submerged objects, when not in danger of rapid deterioration, should remain in their historical context; - non-destructive techniques should be used in activities dealing with the underwater cultural heritage; - the promotion of public access to the underwater cultural heritage; - a report with all the information gathered during archaeological investigations should be created and made public; The same goes for the cultural heritage on land. In this way, not only archaeologists working on Statia or elsewhere, but also the local community and visitors can reap the benefits from the numerous cannon and anchors that can be found all over and around St. Eustatius. 74 9. Conclusion It has become clear that St. Eustatius experienced a turbulent history in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Multiple changes of power among the Dutch, French and English had a large impact on the islands’ inhabitants and economy. During the relatively long and peaceful Dutch occupation in the eighteenth century Statia became the largest transshipment center in the Atlantic World. Merchants from all over the world came to this free port to make money. Towards the end of the eighteenth century Statia had to pay the price: during the fourth Anglo-Dutch war the English Admiral Rodney took over the island after an order from his superiors in Great Britain to put an end to the trade of weapons and ammunition between St. Eustatius and the rebelling English colonies in North America. After a short revival the island lost its significance in the early nineteenth century. This situation is reflected in the anchor assemblage found on and around the island. Most anchors date to the late eighteenth century, and are of French, Dutch, and English origin. This was the time when over 3,000 ships a year entered St. Eustatius’ busy port. In most cases, the anchors ended up in Statian waters out of pure necessity: when they were hooked on one of the many coral reefs their cable that attached them to the ship was cut. The cannon in particular can say a lot about the history of the island. It was found that the guns now present on St. Eustatius, ranging from swivel guns to heavy 24-pounders, were cast at many different foundries in various European countries such as Sweden, Norway, England, France, Scotland and Spain. Most of these date to either the late seventeenth or early eighteenth century or the late eighteenth century. In both cases these cannon were acquired after turbulent times. The many guns that were present in forts and batteries all around the island were, however, not very useful in the defense. Guns that were many decades old were used at most fortifications. These were worn out, and didn’t do much good. When the French took over control of the island in 1781 they imported a number of new cannon, but as soon as they left, the old ones started to be used again. Rodney’s invasion could probably never have been stopped, but St. Eustatius might have been able to put up a fight against other invading forces throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries had all cannon worked properly. The cannon assemblage found on Statia is somewhat different from that on Barbados (see introduction). On Barbados guns from various countries (England, Scotland, Sweden, Norway, and France), cast at a great number of different foundries, are present. Although 75 ranging in date from the early seventeenth to the later nineteenth century, the majority of guns on Barbados are seventeenth century English types. The Barbadian collection also includes several bronze guns and carronades. In total, 180 guns were found on Barbados, compared to 72 on Statia. However, because the former island is about twenty times larger than the latter, the cannon density on St. Eustatius is far greater, even if the undiscovered guns from Barbados would be taken into account (Barbados had a total of 364 guns in 40 forts in 1780). Given the facts that there are an estimated 200 shipwrecks present in the waters around Statia and that many cannon in the past have been thrown off cliffs, it is highly probable that many more cannon and anchors can be found and will be found in the future. The ones investigated during this project are all documented in great detail and their locations have been determined. This will be a helpful tool in their protection against looting. The cannon and anchors of St. Eustatius deserve attention and need to be properly managed, because like no other object out there they are captivating visual reminders of a fascinating but long forgotten past. 76 Abstract In this thesis the results of a cannon and anchor survey on the Caribbean island St. Eustatius are presented and discussed. St. Eustatius was an extremely busy port during the latter half of the eighteenth century, and changed hands 22 times in the span of 180 years. To provide a framework in which these objects can be placed, an outline of the history of St. Eustatius as well as a general introduction to cannon and anchors are given. It was found that the French, Dutch, and English anchors encountered during our survey are indicators of the flourishing economy on St. Eustatius during the late eighteenth century. The cannon are particularly revealing, in that they can reveal a lot about the military history of the island. There was found to be a great variety of cannon on the island, ranging from the smallest calibers to 24pounders, and from Norwegian to Spanish manufacture. These guns were cast in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Besides general conclusions, a detailed analysis of the various forts and their guns is given. Some suggestions for the management of these artifacts are made as well. 77 78 Bibliography Albarda, J. & Kroesen, F.L. 1978 Nederlands Geschut sinds 1677. Serie Militair Memoriaal 4. Van Holkema & Warendorf, Bussum. Alofs, Luc et al. 1997 Geschiedenis van de Antillen. De Walburg Pers Zutphen, Holland. Attema, Ypie 1976 St. Eustatius: a short history of the island and its monuments. De Walburg Pers Zutphen, Holland. Barka, Norman F. 1996 Citizens of St. Eustatius, 1781: A Historical and Archaeological Study. In The Lesser Antilles in the Age of European Expansion, edited by Robert L. Paquette and Stanley L. Engerman, p. 223-238. University Press of Florida. 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Goslinga, Cornelis Ch. 1979 A short history of the Netherlands Antilles and Surinam. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague. Goslinga, Cornelis Ch. 1985 The Dutch in the Caribbean and in the Guianas 1680-1791. Edited by Maria J.L. van Yperen. Van Gorcum, Assen. Hartland, Major Michael 2009 The Great Guns of Barbados: The Finest Collection of 17th Century English Iron Guns Known to Exist Anywhere. Miller Publishing Company. Hartog, Johan 1976 History of St. Eustatius. De Witt Stores N.V., Aruba. 81 Hartog, Johan 1997 De forten, verdedigingswerken en geschutstellingen van Sint Eustatius en Saba: van Pieter van Corselles tot Abraham Heyliger 1636-1785. Europese Bibliotheek, Zaltbommel. Henry, Chris 2003 British Napoleonic Artillery 1793-1815 (2): Siege and Coastal Artillery. New Vanguard Series No. 65, Osprey Publishing. Henry, Nathan C. 2009 Queen Anne’s Revenge Shipwreck Project: Analysis of Armament from Shipwreck 31CR314; Queen Anne’s Revenge Site. Research Report and Bulletin Series QAR-B-09-01. North Carolina Underwater Archaeology Branch. Howard, B. P. 1991 Fortifications of St. Eustatius: an archaeological and historical study of defense in the Caribbean. MA Thesis, Dept of Anthropology, College of William and Mary in Virginia. Jameson, Franklin T. 1903 St. Eustatius in the American Revolution. The American Historical Review, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 683-708. Jobling, Jim 1989 Reader’s Enquiry: Bronze Anchors. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration, Vol. 18, Issue 1, p. 67. Josselin de Jong, J. P. B. de 1947 Archeological material from Saba and St. Eustatius, Lesser Antilles. Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden, no. 1. Leiden: E. J. Brill. Kapitän, Gerhard 1984 Ancient anchors – technology and classification. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 33-44. Kennard, A.N. 1986 Gunfounding and Gunfounders: a directory of cannon founders from earliest times to 1850. Arms and Armour Press, London. Kinard, Jeff 2007 Artillery: An Illustrated History of its Impact. Weapons and Warfare Series, ABC CLIO. 82 Kist, J.B. 1988 The Dutch East India Company’s ships’ armament in the 17th and 18th centuries: an overview. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 101-102. Klooster, Wim 1998 Illicit riches: Dutch trade in the Caribbean, 1648-1795. Caribbean series 18. KITLV Press, Leiden. Kuypers, H.W. 1869-1872 Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Artillerie van de Vroegste Tijden tot op Heden. Adolf Blomhert, Nijmegen. Lesley, J. Peter 1856 The Iron Manufacturer’s Guide to the Furnaces, Forges, and Rolling Mills of the United States. American Iron and Steel Association. John Wiley, New York. MacRae, D.R. & Esteban, N. 2007 St. Eustatius National Marine Park Management Plan. Manucy, Albert 2008 Artillery through the ages: A short illustrated history of cannon, emphasizing types used in America. Bibliobazaar. Marx, Robert F. 1987 Shipwrecks in the Americas. General Publishing Company, Canada. Meide, Chuck 2002 The Development and Design of Bronze Ordnance, Sixteenth through Nineteenth Centuries. The College of William and Mary. Munday, John 1998 Naval Cannon. Shire Publications. Nagelkerken, Wil 1985 Preliminary report on the determination of the location of the historical anchorage at Orange Bay, St. Eustatius, Netherlands Antilles. Report of the institute of archaeology and anthropology of the Netherlands Antilles No. 1. Nagelkerken, Wil 2000 Ceramics of Orange Bay, St. Eustatius, Netherlands Antilles. STIMANA Marine Archaeological Series No. 1. Norris, John 2000 Artillery: A History. Sutton Publishing. Pering, Richard 1819 A Treatise on the Anchor. Plymouth Dock: printed and sold by Congdon and Hearle. 83 Peterson, Mendel 1973 History under the Sea: A Handbook for Underwater Exploration. Published by the author, Alexandria, Virginia. Purmer, Michiel 2003 Nederlandse cultuurhistorie overzee: historisch-geografische relicten op de Bovenwindse Eilanden van de Nederlandse Antillen. Historisch-Geografisch Tijdschrift 21 (1), pp. 931-950. Puype, J.-P. 1990 Dutch Guns and their Handling at Sea, 17th Century. Journal of the Ordnance Society, Vol. 2, pp. 11-23. Reaumur, R.A.F. de 1723 Fabrique des Ancres. In: Bertrand, J.E., 1764 Descriptions des arts et métiers. Académie Royale des Sciences, Paris. Roberts III, William I 1968 Ralph Carr: A Newcastle Merchant and the American Colonial Trade. The Business History Review, Vol. 42, No. 3, pp. 271-287. Roobol, John M. & Smith, Alan L. 2004 Volcanology of Saba and St. Eustatius, Northern Lesser Antilles. Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Roth, Rudi 1989 A proposed standard in the reporting of historic artillery. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration, Vol. 18, Issue 3, pp. 191-202. Roth, Rudi 1993 The Historic Ordnance at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. Journal of the Ordnance Society, Vol. 5. Roth, Rudi 1996 The Visser Collection: Arms of the Netherlands in the Collection of H.L. Visser. Volume II: Ordnance. Waanders Publishers, Zwolle. Ruhge, Justin M. 1984 The Cannons of Goleta. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration, Vol. 13, Issue 4, pp. 297-304. Seller, John 1691 The Sea Gunner: shewing the practical part of gunnery, as it is used at sea. Printed by H. Clark. 84 Southey, Thomas 1827 Chronological History of the West Indies, Volume III. A. & R. Spottiswoode, London. Stelten, Ruud 2009 The Golden Rock: Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Metal Buckles from Oranje Bay, St. Eustatius. Unpublished BA thesis, Leiden University. Tripali, Sila, Gaur, A.S. and Sundaresh 2003 Anchors from Goa waters, Central West Coast of India: Remains of Goa’s overseas trade contacts with Arabian countries and Portugal. Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 27, pp. 97-106. Upham, N.E. 2001 Anchors. Second Edition, Shire Publications Ltd., Buckinghamshire. UNESCO 2001 The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. Versteeg, A.H. & C. Schinkel (eds.) 1992 The Archaeology of St. Eustatius: the Golden Rock site. Publication of the St. Eustatius Historical Foundation 2, Publication of the Foundation for Scientific Research in the Caribbean Region 131. Wakeren, Al van 1993 Engels gietijzeren geschut: een Nederlandse handel 1609-1640. In: Puype, J.P. and Hoeven, M. van der (eds.); Het arsenaal van de wereld: Nederlandse wapenhandel in de Gouden Eeuw, pp. 28-35. De Bataafsche Leeuw, Amsterdam. Witsen, Nicolaes 1690 Architectura navalis et regimen nauticum, ofte Aaloude en hedendaagsche scheeps-bouw en bestier. Amsterdam. Yk, Cornelis van 1697 De Nederlandsche Scheeps-bouw-konst Open Gestelt. Andries Voorstad, Delft. 85 86 Appendix 1: Distribution Maps 87 88 Cannon Distribution Map 3 2 4 1 5 6 8 7 9 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 10 11 13 12 15 14 16 1. Fort Oranje; # 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 9. Harbour office; # 49 17. Battery Corre-Corre/Nonna Grells; # 20, 21, 22 2. Historical Museum; # 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 10. SECAR building; # 34, 35 18. Battery Concordia; # 18, 19 3. Bay Path; # 12 11. Battery Bouillé; # 29, 30, 31 19. Tumble Down Dick Battery; # 36, 37, 38, 39 4. Offshore Dive Statia; # 63 12. Twelve Guns; # 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71 20. Battery Jussac; # 45, 46, 47, 48 5. Peterson’s Paradise; # 58 13. Private backyard; # 59 21. Fort Panga; # 40, 41, 42, 43, 44 6. In bushes Lower Town; # 23, 24 14. Battery Nassau; # 33 22. Schotsenhoek plantation house; # 50 7. STENAPA office; # 32 15. Unnamed offshore site; # 72 23. Fort Royal; # 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57 8. Offshore Golden Rock dive; # 60, 61, 62 16. Battery De Windt; # 25, 26, 27, 28 Anchor Distribution Map 4 2 1 3 5 6 7 1. Rundown House next to hospital; # 1001 2. The Old Gin House Hotel; # 1002 8 3. Dive Statia; #1003 4. Offshore Dive Statia; # 1007 5. Double Wreck; # 1004, 1005, 1006 6. Triple Wreck; # 1014, 1015, 1016 7. Crook’s Castle; # 1011, 1012 9 8. Nursing Station; # 1008, 1009, 1010 9. Anchor Point; # 1013 Appendix 2: Cannon Database 89 90 Cannon styles on St. Eustatius # 3, 7, 43 # 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 48 # 17, 36, 38, 55, 58 # 29, 52 # 25, 30, 33, 37, 45, 56, 57 91 # 26, 49 # 51, 53, 54 # 50 # 19, 20, 21, 40, 41, 42, 44, 46, 47 # 16 92 # 15, 34, 35, 59 The original drawings were made by Nico Brinck, Rudi Roth, and Karson Winslow. 93 Context Reference # 1 Category Fort Site Fort Oranje (SE128) Location Oranjestad, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’54” N Orientation NW – SE No. of guns at this location 11 No. of variant styles at this location 3 62°59’11” W General Information Type Finbanker, Dutch fortress pattern Place of manufacture Finspång, Sweden Date of manufacture 1786 Pounder designation 3 Material Cast iron Weight 473 kg All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 198 Barrel (max.) 27.7 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 188.5 Barrel (min.) 17.3 Cascable + button 9.5 Cascabel (max.) 30 Breech - Cascabel (min.) 14.4 First reinforce 51.3 Button 8.3 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 30 Second reinforce 34 Muzzle swell 21.6 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 17 Chase 80 Trunnion face 7.3 Muzzle 18.7 Bore 7.3 Distance between trunnion faces 39.5 Base ring to centre of trunnions 85.3 Bore - Comments The gun is in good condition: there is no damage and no corrosion. The bore is blocked. The gun is restored to a replica carriage. 94 Marking # Marking Explanation 1 N XLVIII 950 W III IX X 2 F Casting number: 48 Weight mark: 950 Amsterdam pounds Weight mark: 3 skeppund, 9 lispund, 10 pund; first reinforce Foundry mark: Finspång; right trunnion 3 Drawing # 3 Proof mark Amsterdam; first reinforce above weight mark 4 1786 Year of manufacture; left trunnion 5 18 Swedish registration number; muzzle face 6 Crowns Mark of the Swedish government; muzzle face 95 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 96 Context Reference # 2 Category Fort Site Fort Oranje (SE128) Location Oranjestad, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’54” N Orientation NW – SE No. of guns at this location 11 No. of variant styles at this location 3 62°59’11” W General Information Type Finbanker, Dutch fortress pattern Place of manufacture Finspång Date of manufacture 1786 Pounder designation 3 Material Cast iron Weight 484 kg All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 199 Barrel (max.) 28 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 188.5 Barrel (min.) 17 Cascable + button 10.5 Cascabel (max.) 29.5 Breech - Cascabel (min.) 14.3 First reinforce 50 Button 8.3 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 29.5 Second reinforce 34.3 Muzzle swell 22.5 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 17.4 Chase 79.7 Trunnion face 7.4 Muzzle 19 Bore 7.3 Distance between trunnion faces 38.7 Base ring to centre of trunnions 84.5 Bore - Comments The gun is in good condtion: there is no damage and no corrosion. The bore is blocked. The gun is restored to a replica carriage. 97 Marking # Marking Explanation 1 N XXXV 976 W III XI V 2 F Casting number: 35 Weight mark: 976 Amsterdam pounds Weight mark: 3 skeppund, 11 lispund, 5 pund; first reinforce Foundry mark: Finspång; right trunnion 3 Drawing # 3 Proof mark Amsterdam; first reinforce above weight mark 4 1786 Year of manufacture; left trunnion 5 13 Swedish registration number; muzzle face 6 Crowns Mark of the Swedish government; muzzle face 98 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 99 Context Reference # 3 Category Fort Site Fort Oranje (SE128) Location Oranjestad, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’54” N Orientation NW – SE No. of guns at this location 11 No. of variant styles at this location 3 62°59’11” W General Information Type Armstrong Place of manufacture Carron Company, Scotland Date of manufacture Around 1786 Pounder designation 3 Material Cast iron Weight 420 kg All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 183.4 Barrel (max.) 27 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 168.9 Barrel (min.) 17.2 Cascable + button 14.5 Cascabel (max.) 26.7 Breech 10 Cascabel (min.) 11.6 First reinforce 33.7 Button 7.3 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 28.7 Second reinforce 31.7 Muzzle swell 21.8 Distance between second reinforce rings 6 Muzzle face 14.1 Chase 59.4 Trunnion face 7.5 Muzzle 21 Bore 7.9 Distance between trunnion faces 36.6 Base ring to centre of trunnions 74.2 Bore - Comments The gun is in good condition: there is no significant damage and no corrosion. The bore is blocked. The gun is restored to a replica carriage. The markings on the left trunnion are completely obscured. 100 101 1 1 2 Marking # Marking Explanation 1 Drawing # 1 2 3P 8 1 0 836 Proof mark Amsterdam; first reinforce 3-pounder Weight mark: 8 cwt and 1 quarter Weight mark in pounds of 500 grams; right trunnion 102 Context Reference # 4 Category Fort Site Fort Oranje (SE128) Location Oranjestad, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’54” N Orientation W–E No. of guns at this location 11 No. of variant styles at this location 3 62°59’11” W General Information Type Finbanker, Dutch fortress pattern Place of manufacture Finspång, Sweden Date of manufacture 1786 Pounder designation 3 Material Cast iron Weight 471 kg All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 198.5 Barrel (max.) 28 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 188.8 Barrel (min.) 16.9 Cascable + button 9.7 Cascabel (max.) 29 Breech - Cascabel (min.) 14 First reinforce 49.3 Button 7.8 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 29 Second reinforce 34.2 Muzzle swell 22.5 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 16.7 Chase 79.7 Trunnion face 6.9 Muzzle 19 Bore 7.6 Distance between trunnion faces 38.7 Base ring to centre of trunnions 80.5 Bore - Comments The gun is in good condition: there is no damage and no corrosion. The bore is blocked. The gun is restored to a replica carriage. A nail has been hammered into the vent to disable it. 103 Marking # Marking Explanation 1 N XLIII 948 W III IX V 2 F Casting number: 43 Weight mark: 948 Amsterdam pounds Weight mark: 3 skeppund, 9 lispund, 5 pund; first reinforce Foundry mark: Finspång; right trunnion 3 Drawing # 3 Proof mark Amsterdam; first reinforce above weight mark 4 1786 Year of manufacture; left trunnion 5 19 Swedish registration number; muzzle face 6 Crowns Mark of the Swedish government; muzzle face 104 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 105 Context Reference # 5 Category Fort Site Fort Oranje (SE128) Location Oranjestad, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’54” N Orientation W–E No. of guns at this location 11 No. of variant styles at this location 3 62°59’11” W General Information Type Finbanker, Dutch fortress pattern Place of manufacture Finspång, Sweden Date of manufacture 1786 Pounder designation 3 Material Cast iron Weight 477 kg All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 197.8 Barrel (max.) 28.4 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 188.5 Barrel (min.) 16.9 Cascable + button 9.3 Cascabel (max.) 30.4 Breech - Cascabel (min.) 14.6 First reinforce 49.5 Button 8.2 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 30.4 Second reinforce 34.2 Muzzle swell 22.3 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 17.7 Chase 79.8 Trunnion face 6.9 Muzzle 18.7 Bore 7.4 Distance between trunnion faces 39.6 Base ring to centre of trunnions 84.8 Bore - Comments The gun is in good condition: there is no damage and no corrosion. The bore is blocked. The gun is restored to a replica carriage. 106 Marking # Marking Explanation 1 N II….. 966 W III X V 2 F Casting number: Weight mark: 966 Amsterdam pounds Weight mark: 3 skeppund, 10 lispund, 5 pund; first reinforce Foundry mark: Finspång; right trunnion 3 Drawing # 3 Proof mark Amsterdam; first reinforce above weight mark 4 1786 Year of manufacture; left trunnion 5 23 Swedish registration number; muzzle face 6 2 Crowns Mark of the Swedish government; muzzle face 107 1 2 3 3 4 6 5+6 108 Context Reference # 6 Category Fort Site Fort Oranje (SE128) Location Oranjestad, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’54” N Orientation W–E No. of guns at this location 11 No. of variant styles at this location 3 62°59’11” W General Information Type Finbanker, Dutch fortress pattern Place of manufacture Finspång, Sweden Date of manufacture 1786 Pounder designation 3 Material Cast iron Weight 476 kg All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 199.7 Barrel (max.) 27.6 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 188.3 Barrel (min.) 16.9 Cascable + button 11.4 Cascabel (max.) 28.5 Breech - Cascabel (min.) 14.5 First reinforce 49.7 Button 7.9 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 28.5 Second reinforce 34.3 Muzzle swell 23 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 7.3 Chase 79.6 Trunnion face 7.4 Muzzle 19.5 Bore 7.5 Distance between trunnion faces 39 Base ring to centre of trunnions 85.3 Bore - Comments The gun is in good condition: there is no damage and no corrosion. The bore is blocked. The gun is restored to a replica carriage. 109 Marking # Marking Explanation 1 N LII 958 W III X 2 F Casting number: 52 Weight mark: 958 Amsterdam pounds Weight mark: 3 skeppund, 10 lispund; first reinforce Foundry mark: Finspång; right trunnion 3 Drawing # 3 Proof mark Amsterdam; first reinforce above weight mark 4 1786 Year of manufacture; left trunnion 5 26 Swedish registration number; muzzle face 6 3 crowns Mark of the Swedish government; muzzle face 110 1 2 3 3 4 6 5+6 111 Context Reference # 7 Category Fort Site Fort Oranje (SE128) Location Oranjestad, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’54” N Orientation W–E No. of guns at this location 11 No. of variant styles at this location 3 62°59’11” W General Information Type Armstrong Place of manufacture Carron Company, Schotland Date of manufacture 1786 Pounder designation 3 Material Cast iron Weight 420 kg All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 181.8 Barrel (max.) 26.8 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 168.2 Barrel (min.) 17.5 Cascable + button 13.6 Cascabel (max.) 26.5 Breech 8.1 Cascabel (min.) 11.7 First reinforce 34.3 Button 7.1 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 28.5 Second reinforce 31.2 Muzzle swell 23.3 Distance between second reinforce rings 6.3 Muzzle face 13.7 Chase 59.2 Trunnion face 7.5 Muzzle 20.6 Bore 7.5 Distance between trunnion faces 39 Base ring to centre of trunnions 75.5 Bore - Comments The gun is in good condition: there is no significant damage and no corrosion. The bore is blocked. The gun is restored to a replica carriage. The markings on the left trunnion are partly obscured. 112 113 1 2 3 Marking # Marking 1 3P 8 1 0 836 2 ….. CA.… 1786 3 Drawing # 3 Explanation 3-pounder Weight mark: 8 cwt and 1 quarter Weight mark in pounds of 500 grams; right trunnion Foundry mark: CARRON Year of manufacture; left trunnion Proof mark Amsterdam; first reinforce 114 Context Reference # 8 Category Fort Site Fort Oranje (SE128) Location Oranjestad, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’54” N Orientation SW – NE No. of guns at this location 11 No. of variant styles at this location 3 62°59’11” W General Information Type Finbanker, Dutch fortress pattern Place of manufacture Finspång, Sweden Date of manufacture 1786 Pounder designation 3 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 199 Barrel (max.) 27.5 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 188.8 Barrel (min.) 17.2 Cascable + button 10.2 Cascabel (max.) 30.1 Breech - Cascabel (min.) 13.7 First reinforce 48.7 Button 8.2 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 30.1 Second reinforce 34 Muzzle swell 20.2 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 16.3 Chase 79.7 Trunnion face 7 Muzzle 19 Bore 7.5 Distance between trunnion faces 39 Base ring to centre of trunnions 85.5 Bore - Comments The gun is in good condtion: there is no damage and no corrosion. The bore is blocked. The gun is restored to a replica carriage. 115 116 1 2 3 Marking # Marking 4 Explanation 1 N….. 93... W…… 2 F Casting number: Weight mark: 93… or 95… Amsterdam pounds Weight mark: - ; first reinforce Foundry mark: Finspång; right trunnion 3 1786 Year of manufacture; left trunnion 4 Drawing # 4 Proof mark Amsterdam; first reinforce above weight mark 117 Context Reference # 9 Category Monument Site Fort Oranje (SE128) Location Oranjestad, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’54” N Orientation N–S No. of guns at this location 11 No. of variant styles at this location 3 62°59’11” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Fossum foundry, by master gunfounder Cai Børting, Norway Date of manufacture 1692 – 1712 Pounder designation 4 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) - Barrel (min.) 17.8 Cascable + button - Cascabel (max.) - Breech - Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce - Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce - Muzzle swell 20.9 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 16.2 Chase 58.7 Trunnion face - Muzzle 26.5 Bore 8.1 Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions - Bore - Comments The gun is embedded in the monument commemorating the visit of Admiral Michiel Adriaansz de Ruyter to St. Eustatius in 1665. The bore of the gun is blocked. The muzzle astragal is made up of three rings. There are five rings present on the muzzle swell. 118 119 Context Reference # 10 Category Monument Site Fort Oranje (SE128) Location Oranjestad, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’54” N Orientation W–E No. of guns at this location 11 No. of variant styles at this location 3 62°59’11” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Fossum foundry, by master gunfounder Cai Børting, Norway Date of manufacture 1692 – 1712 Pounder designation 4 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) - Barrel (min.) 17.8 Cascable + button - Cascabel (max.) - Breech - Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce - Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce - Muzzle swell 20.7 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 7.5 Chase 62 Trunnion face - Muzzle 26.2 Bore 8.1 Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions - Bore - Comments The gun is embedded in the monument commemorating the visit of Admiral Michiel Adriaansz de Ruyter to St. Eustatius in 1665. The bore of the gun is blocked. The muzzle astragal is made up of three rings. There are five rings present on the muzzle swell. One thick and two thin rings are visible in front of the trunnions. 120 121 Context Reference # 11 Category Monument Site Fort Oranje (SE128) Location Oranjestad, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’54” N Orientation NE – SW No. of guns at this location 11 No. of variant styles at this location 3 62°59’11” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Fossum foundry, by master gunfounder Cai Børting, Norway Date of manufacture 1692 – 1712 Pounder designation 4 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) - Barrel (min.) 17.9 Cascable + button - Cascabel (max.) - Breech - Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce - Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce - Muzzle swell 20.4 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 17.5 Chase 65.5 Trunnion face - Muzzle 27.3 Bore 8.1 Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions - Bore - Comments The gun is embedded in the monument commemorating the visit of Admiral Michiel Adriaansz de Ruyter to St. Eustatius in 1665. The bore of the gun is blocked. The muzzle astragal is made up of three rings. There are five rings present on the muzzle swell. One thick and three thin rings are visible in front of the trunnions. 122 123 Context Reference # 12 Category Land Site Bay Path Location Oranjestad, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’59.3” N Orientation - No. of guns at this location 1 No. of variant styles at this location 1 62°59’15.4” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Spain Date of manufacture 18 century Pounder designation - Material Cast iron Weight - th All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) - Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button 13.2 Cascabel (max.) 26.3 Breech 8.7 Cascabel (min.) 8.2 First reinforce 40.5 Button 7.3 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 28.3 Second reinforce 36 Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face - Chase - Trunnion face 2.9 Muzzle - Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 74.5 Bore - Comments A heavily corroded gun, incorporated in the wall of the Bay Path. It has a thick band of rings behind the trunnions. The cascabel is relatively flat. 124 125 Context Reference # 13 Category Museum Site Museum backyard Location Oranjestad, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’01.9” N Orientation NE – SW No. of guns at this location 2 No. of variant styles at this location 2 62°59’11.3” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture - Date of manufacture - Pounder designation - Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) 16.7 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) - Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button 11.5 Cascabel (max.) 18.9 Breech 7 Cascabel (min.) 6 First reinforce 21 Button 6 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 18.9 Second reinforce - Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face - Chase - Trunnion face - Muzzle - Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions - Bore - Comments The gun is heavily corroded and partially buried. Three rings are visible on the cascabel. This gun is thought to have been brought up from Oranje Bay. 126 127 Context Reference # 14 Category Museum Site Museum backyard Location Oranjestad, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’01.9” N Orientation N–S No. of guns at this location 2 No. of variant styles at this location 2 62°59’11.3” W General Information Type Finbanker Place of manufacture Finspång, Sweden Date of manufacture Late 18 century Pounder designation 2 Material Cast iron Weight - th All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 133.5 Barrel (max.) 23.6 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 120.3 Barrel (min.) 16 Cascable + button 13.2 Cascabel (max.) - Breech 9 Cascabel (min.) 9.7 First reinforce 20.5 Button 6.1 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce 20 Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings 11 Muzzle face 14 Chase 38.3 Trunnion face 4.4 Muzzle 17.5 Bore - Distance between trunnion faces 33 Base ring to centre of trunnions 49.5 Bore - Comments The gun is heavily corroded. The bore is blocked and too corroded to take a reliable diameter measurement. There are two thick rings in front of the trunnions and one thick ring behind. The gun is thought to have been brought up from Oranje Bay. 128 129 Context Reference # 15 Category Museum Site Museum building Location Oranjestad, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’01.9” N Orientation W–E No. of guns at this location 2 No. of variant styles at this location 2 62°59’11.3” W General Information Type Swivel gun Place of manufacture England Date of manufacture Late 18 century Pounder designation 1 Material Cast iron Weight - th /2 All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 81.2 Barrel (max.) 13.7 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 72.5 Barrel (min.) 7.9 Cascable + button 8.7 Cascabel (max.) 15 Breech 5.7 Cascabel (min.) 9.9 First reinforce 13.1 Button 6.6 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 15 Second reinforce 13.1 Muzzle swell 10 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 7.1 Chase 24.3 Trunnion face 3.7 Muzzle 13 Bore 3.7 Distance between trunnion faces 21.5 Base ring to centre of trunnions 31.5 Bore - Comments A corroded swivel gun from Oranje Bay, said to be from a lost cargo. It is corroded and has a blocked bore. A vent block is present. 130 131 Context Reference # 16 Category Museum Site Museum building Location Oranjestad, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’01.9” N Orientation N–S No. of guns at this location 2 No. of variant styles at this location 2 62°59’11.3” W General Information Type Swivel gun Place of manufacture England Date of manufacture Early 18 century Pounder designation 1 Material Cast iron Weight - th /2 All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 82.4 Barrel (max.) 12.3 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 77 Barrel (min.) 7.9 Cascable + button 5.4 Cascabel (max.) 14 Breech 5.2 Cascabel (min.) 7.8 First reinforce 16 Button 5.3 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 14 Second reinforce 13 Muzzle swell 11.2 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 8.2 Chase 27.2 Trunnion face 3.1 Muzzle 11.4 Bore 4.1 Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 33.3 Bore - Comments A heavily corroded swivel gun from Oranje Bay, said to be from a lost cargo together with # 15. The bore is blocked. 132 133 Context Reference # 17 Category Museum Site Museum frontyard Location Oranjestad, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’01.9” N Orientation N–S No. of guns at this location 1 No. of variant styles at this location 1 62°59’11.3” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Fossum foundry, by master gunfounder Cai Børting, Norway Date of manufacture 1692 – 1712 Pounder designation 12 Material Cast iron Weight 1541 kg All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 293.6 Barrel (max.) 42.7 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 267.8 Barrel (min.) 26.3 Cascable + button 25.8 Cascabel (max.) 41.6 Breech 12 Cascabel (min.) 18.1 First reinforce 51.6 Button 13.5 Distance between first reinforce rings 3.6 Base ring 44.4 Second reinforce 51.2 Muzzle swell 27.6 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 32.4 Chase 113.2 Trunnion face 10.5 Muzzle 36.2 Bore 13 Distance between trunnion faces 57.4 Base ring to centre of trunnions 109 Bore - Comments The gun is employed as a monument (slave monument). It is in good condition: there is no corrosion and no significant damage (except for the trunnion faces). The gun is restored to a replica carriage and is originally from Battery Tumble Down Dick. It is identical to # 36 at Tumble Down Dick Battery, and has the same length. Therefore, the gun has to weigh almost the same as # 36. The weight mark, partially obscured, therefore has to be: H3120A. 134 1 Marking # 1 Marking Explanation …120A Weight mark: ‘A’ stands for Amsterdam pound (0,494 kg), so logically the first numeral is obscured; first reinforce 135 Context Reference # 18 Category Battery Site Battery Concordia (SE81) Location Next to fence of airport, facing Atlantic side, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°30’03.47” N Orientation N–S No. of guns at this location 2 No. of variant styles at this location 1/2 62°58’25.07” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture France Date of manufacture - Pounder designation 4 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) 32.5 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 174 Barrel (min.) 23 Cascable + button - Cascabel (max.) 23 Breech 9.3 Cascabel (min.) 10 First reinforce 36 Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 35 Second reinforce 33.5 Muzzle swell 22 Distance between second reinforce rings 12 Muzzle face 22 Chase 44 Trunnion face - Muzzle 24 Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 75 Bore - Comments The gun is in a very bad state: it is heavily corroded, the trunnions and button are beaten off, and the bore is blocked. Visible are a vent field astragal, a single first reinforce ring, and a single second reinforce ring. The reinforce rings and the shape of the cascabel suggest that this is a French gun, but due to the corrosion the exact type can’t be confirmed. 136 137 Context Reference # 19 Category Battery Site Battery Concordia (SE81) Location Next to fence of airport, facing Atlantic side, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°30’03.24” N Orientation SE – NW No. of guns at this location 2 No. of variant styles at this location 1/2 62°58’24.84” W General Information Type 1766 pattern Place of manufacture France Date of manufacture 1766 – 1778, 1783 – 1785 Pounder designation 4 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 195 Barrel (max.) 28 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 178 Barrel (min.) 18 Cascable + button 17 Cascabel (max.) 21.2 Breech 19.4 Cascabel (min.) 17.5 First reinforce 44.2 Button 9.3 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 28 Second reinforce 26.5 Muzzle swell 16.3 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face - Chase 63.2 Trunnion face 10.5 Muzzle 26.5 Bore - Distance between trunnion faces 46.5 (approx.) Base ring to centre of trunnions 76 Bore - Comments The gun is in a very bad state: it is heavily corroded and the bore is blocked. Visible are a vent field astragal, a single first reinforce ring, and a single second reinforce ring. The reinforce rings and the shape of the cascabel suggest that this is a French gun, but due to the corrosion the exact type can’t be confirmed. 138 139 Context Reference # 20 Category Battery Site Corre-Corre/Nonna Grells Battery (SE27) Location St. Eustatius, east coast near Corre Corre Bay GPS-Coördinates 17°28’50” N Orientation NE – SW No. of guns at this location 3 No. of variant styles at this location 2 62°56’48.22” W General Information Type 1766 pattern Place of manufacture France Date of manufacture 1766 – 1778, 1783 – 1785 Pounder designation 4 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 191 Barrel (max.) 30.7 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 176 Barrel (min.) 22 Cascable + button 15 Cascabel (max.) 29 Breech - Cascabel (min.) 13.2 First reinforce (including breech) 61.7 Button 7.1 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 32 Second reinforce 27 Muzzle swell 23.5 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 16.6 Chase 65 Trunnion face - Muzzle 22.2 Bore 8.6 Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 75 Bore - Comments The gun is in a very bad condition: it is heavily corroded, the barrel is cracked and disintegrating, the bore is blocked, and parts of the trunnions are missing. The first reinforce astragal is not visible. This gun is identical to # 21. It rests on the battery wall. 140 141 Context Reference # 21 Category Battery Site Corre-Corre/Nonna Grells Battery (SE27) Location St. Eustatius, east coast near Corre Corre Bay GPS-Coördinates 17°28’50” N Orientation SE – NW No. of guns at this location 3 No. of variant styles at this location 2 62°56’48.22” W General Information Type 1766 pattern Place of manufacture France Date of manufacture 1766 – 1778, 1783 – 1785 Pounder designation 4 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 191 Barrel (max.) 30 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 176 Barrel (min.) 21.2 Cascable + button 15 Cascabel (max.) 28 Breech 18 Cascabel (min.) 14.5 First reinforce 45 Button 8.5 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 30.5 Second reinforce 25.5 Muzzle swell 24.5 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 19 Chase 65.2 Trunnion face 5.4 Muzzle 23 Bore 8.6 Distance between trunnion faces 42 Base ring to centre of trunnions 75.5 Bore - Comments The gun is in a very bad condition, but slightly better than its counterpart # 20: it is heavily corroded and disintegrating, and the bore is blocked. The first reinforce astragal is visible on this gun. It rests on the battery wall. 142 143 Context Reference # 22 Category Battery Site Corre-Corre/Nonna Grells Battery (SE27) Location St. Eustatius, east coast near Corre Corre Bay GPS-Coördinates 17°28’50” N Orientation E–W No. of guns at this location 3 No. of variant styles at this location 2 62°56’48.22” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Sweden or Norway Date of manufacture - Pounder designation 12 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 286 Barrel (max.) 42 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 257 Barrel (min.) 30 (approx.) Cascable + button 29 Cascabel (max.) 46 Breech 21.5 Cascabel (min.) 22.5 First reinforce 65 Button 18.2 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 46 Second reinforce 34 Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face - Chase 101 Trunnion face 10 (approx.) Muzzle 36 Bore - Distance between trunnion faces 59 Base ring to centre of trunnions 104.5 Bore - Comments The gun is heavily corroded and is positioned upside down. It has a broad band of rings on either side of the trunnions. The cascabel is made up of a number of rings, although the state of the gun makes it impossible to establish the exact amount. The reinforce rings indicate that this is a Scandinavian gun. 144 145 Context Reference # 23 Category Land Site On Oranje Bay, Lower Town Location In bushes on cliff side of main road, 80 m. north of Blue Bead GPS-Coördinates 17°28’50.07” N Orientation SW – NE No. of guns at this location 2 No. of variant styles at this location 2 62°59’10.88” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Finspång or Huseby, Sweden; possibly Prussian Date of manufacture 1680 – 1700 Pounder designation 12 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) - Barrel (min.) 26 Cascable + button - Cascabel (max.) - Breech - Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce - Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce - Muzzle swell 32 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 24.6 Chase 141 Trunnion face - Muzzle 36 Bore 13.3 (approx.) Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions - Bore - Comments The gun is partly buried and is heavily corroded. It has a blocked bore and the trunnions are beaten off. A broad muzzle astragal and a broad band of second reinforce rings indicate that the gun was cast in Sweden. There are at least three rings present on the muzzle face. The gun is resting on a wall. 146 147 148 Context Reference # 24 Category Land Site On Oranje Bay, Lower Town Location In bushes on cliff side of main road, 80 m. north of Blue Bead GPS-Coördinates 17°28’50.07” N Orientation SW – NE No. of guns at this location 2 No. of variant styles at this location 2 62°59’10.88” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Finspång or Huseby, Sweden; possibly Prussian Date of manufacture 1680 – 1700 Pounder designation 18 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) 49 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 240 Barrel (min.) 28.5 Cascable + button - Cascabel (max.) 47 Breech 10.5 Cascabel (min.) 12.5 First reinforce 60.5 Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 50.5 Second reinforce 36 Muzzle swell 36 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 29 Chase 90.5 Trunnion face - Muzzle 42.5 Bore 14 (approx.) Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 101 Bore - Comments The gun is in a bad condition: it is heavily corroded and the trunnions and buttons are beaten off. There is a great number of rings present on the barrel: seven on the muzzle astragal, three in front of the trunnions, four behind the trunnions, eight rings on the cascabel, at least three rings on the muzzle face, and three rings on the breech side of the base ring. The gun is resting on a wall. 149 150 Context Reference # 25 Category Battery Site Battery De Windt (SE8) Location Back off Bay, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°27’56.13” N Orientation SW – NE No. of guns at this location 4 No. of variant styles at this location 3/4 62°57’49.77” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Finspång, Sweden Date of manufacture c. 1700 Pounder designation 12 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 287 Barrel (max.) 42 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 259.5 Barrel (min.) 26.6 Cascable + button 27.5 Cascabel (max.) 43 Breech 16 Cascabel (min.) 22.2 First reinforce 65.3 Button 17.2 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 44 Second reinforce 37 Muzzle swell 31.1 Distance between second reinforce rings 7 Muzzle face 25.2 Chase 100 Trunnion face 10.8 Muzzle 35.7 Bore 13 Distance between trunnion faces 58 Base ring to centre of trunnions 107.5 Bore - Comments The gun is in a reasonably good condition: it has light corrosion on the bottom and sides. It is restored to a replica carriage. The markings are partly obscured and the bore is blocked. There are six rings on the cascabel, four rings on the breech side of the base ring, and four rings on the muzzle face. The muzzle astragal is composed of six rings, the first reinforce ring is composed of five rings, and the second reinforce ring is made up of a thick and a slightly thinner ring. 151 152 1 2 3 Marking # Marking Explanation 1 F Foundry mark: Finspång; right trunnion 2 F 3 …..20A Foundry mark: Finspång; left trunnion Weight mark: ‘A’ stands for Amsterdam pound (0,494 kg), so the first numerals are obscured; base ring 153 Context Reference # 26 Category Battery Site Battery De Windt (SE8) Location Back off Bay, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°27’56.12” N Orientation S–N No. of guns at this location 4 No. of variant styles at this location 3/4 62°57’49.94” W General Information Type Turned and Nealed Place of manufacture England Date of manufacture 1685 – 1688 Pounder designation 18 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 270.5 Barrel (max.) 36 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 245.3 Barrel (min.) 21.3 Cascable + button 25.2 Cascabel (max.) 37 Breech 12.5 Cascabel (min.) 12.2 First reinforce 57 Button 14.8 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 38 Second reinforce 52.7 Muzzle swell 26.4 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 20.5 Chase 95.8 Trunnion face 7.4 Muzzle 25 Bore 12.8 Distance between trunnion faces 51.5 Base ring to centre of trunnions 104.5 Bore - Comments The gun is in a reasonable condition: it is lightly corroded on the bottom and sides and it is restored to a replica carriage. The trunnion marks are obscured, as is part of the royal cipher on the second reinforce. The muzzle face has three rings, the cascabel seven rings, and there are four rings on the breech side of the base ring. The first reinforce ring comprises one thick, broad ring and two thin rings. In front of the trunnions are situated one thick and two thin rings. The muzzle astragal is made up of one thin and one thick ring. 154 155 1 Marking # 1 Marking Explanation James II Unfinished crest of King James II; second reinforce 156 Context Reference # 27 Category Battery Site Battery De Windt (SE8), on cliff edge facing White Wall Location Back off Bay, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°27’56.39” N Orientation N–S No. of guns at this location 4 No. of variant styles at this location 3/4 62°57’49.78” N General Information Type - Place of manufacture - Date of manufacture - Pounder designation - Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 237 Barrel (max.) 33.5 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 221.5 Barrel (min.) 17 Cascable + button 15.5 Cascabel (max.) 29 Breech 14.2 Cascabel (min.) 19.5 First reinforce 41 Button 9 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 33.5 Second reinforce 55.2 Muzzle swell 19 Distance between second reinforce rings 13.5 Muzzle face 16.2 Chase 78.3 Trunnion face 6.7 Muzzle 28.5 Bore 10 (approx.) Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 90 Bore 209 Comments The gun is heavily corroded. There are two rings visible on the cascabel. The gun has one first reinforce ring and two second reinforce rings. The front ring of the second reinforce rings might be a broader band made up of more rings, but this is difficult to see due to the corrosion. Cannon # 28 is lying directly next to this one. 157 158 Context Reference # 28 Category Battery Site Battery De Windt (SE8) Location Back off Bay, on cliff edge facing White Wall GPS-Coördinates 17°27’56.39” N Orientation N–S No. of guns at this location 4 No. of variant styles at this location 3/4 62°57’49.78” N General Information Type - Place of manufacture - Date of manufacture - Pounder designation - Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) - Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button 20 Cascabel (max.) - Breech 18.8 Cascabel (min.) 15.5 First reinforce 57.4 Button 11.9 (approx.) Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce - Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face - Chase - Trunnion face 8.1 Muzzle - Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 88 Bore - Comments The gun exploded during use: the chase and the muzzle are missing. The part that remains is heavily corroded and is about to roll off the cliff. The only rings visible are a single first reinforce ring and the vent field astragal. 159 160 Context Reference # 29 Category Battery Site Battery Bouillé (SE69) Location West coast on cliff, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’28.42” N Orientation SE – NW No. of guns at this location 3 No. of variant styles at this location 3 62°59’06.35” W General Information Type Date of manufacture Borgard Heathfield furnace in Sussex, by master gunfounder Major John Fuller or his son John Fuller II, England 1716 – 1725 Pounder designation 12 Material Cast iron Weight - Place of manufacture All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 265 Barrel (max.) 36 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 244 Barrel (min.) 23.8 Cascable + button 21 Cascabel (max.) 39 Breech 15.2 Cascabel (min.) 15.5 First reinforce - Button 12.5 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 40 Second reinforce 62.5 Muzzle swell 31.5 Distance between second reinforce rings 12 Muzzle face 21.3 Chase 80 Trunnion face 10.2 Muzzle 32.5 Bore 11.7 Distance between trunnion faces 54 Base ring to centre of trunnions 105.5 Bore - Comments The gun is in a good condition: it is only lightly corroded. It is resting on the battery wall and is positioned upside down. 161 162 1 2 3 Marking # Inscription Explanation 1 H Foundry mark: Heathfield furnace; right trunnion 2 IF Maker’s mark: John Fuller; left trunnion 3 Rose and Crown Tudor Rose and Crown mark; second reinforce 163 Context Reference # 30 Category Battery Site Battery Bouillé (SE69) Location West coast on cliff, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’28.42” N Orientation W–E No. of guns at this location 3 No. of variant styles at this location 3 62°59’06.35” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Fossum foundry, by master gunfounder Cai Børting, Norway Date of manufacture 1692 – 1712 Pounder designation 12 Material Cast iron Weight 1645 kg All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 286 Barrel (max.) 42 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 260 Barrel (min.) 24 Cascable + button 26 Cascabel (max.) 13.5 Breech 10.5 Cascabel (min.) 4.8 First reinforce 53.2 Button 13.4 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 43 Second reinforce 52 Muzzle swell 28 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 24.8 Chase 103 Trunnion face 13.6 Muzzle 36 Bore 12.3 Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 108 Bore - Comments The gun is in a good condition: it is slightly corroded, partially buried, and has a blocked bore. There is a large number of rings present: a band of seven rings divides the first from the second reinforce, while a band with the same number of rings is situated between the second reinforce and the chase. The muzzle face is made up of four rings, the vent field astragal has three rings, and there are two rings located on the breech side of the base ring. Due to the vegetation and a bees’ nest in the vent of the gun it was not possible to take very good pictures. 164 165 1 2 Marking # Inscription Explanation 1 H3330A Weight mark: 3330 Amsterdam pounds; base ring 2 Drawing # 2 Proof mark Amsterdam; first reinforce 166 Context Reference # 31 Category Battery Site Battery Bouillé (SE69) Location West coast on cliff, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’28.42” N Orientation NW – SE No. of guns at this location 3 No. of variant styles at this location 3 62°59’06.35” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture France Date of manufacture Late 18 century Pounder designation 24 Material Cast iron Weight - th All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 348.5 Barrel (max.) 48 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 311 Barrel (min.) 30.5 Cascable + button 37.5 Cascabel (max.) 49.5 Breech 22.3 Cascabel (min.) 28 First reinforce 66 Button 17.5 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 51.5 Second reinforce 67 Muzzle swell 37 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 30.5 Chase - Trunnion face 15 Muzzle - Bore 15.5 Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 130.5 Bore - Comments The gun is in a sound condition: it is only slightly corroded. it is positioned upside down. The first reinforce ring consists of one band made up of three rings, while the second reinforce has two bands of three rings each. The second reinforce ring closest to the trunnion forms a little dip in the barrel. The muzzle astragal is composed of one band of rings. The gun has an unusual button. It is the largest gun found during this survey. Due to the vegetation and a bees’ nest in the bore it was not possible to take very good pictures. 167 168 1 2 Marking # Inscription o 3 Explanation 1 N 456 Casting number; base ring 2 EC Maker’s mark: unidentified; left trunnion 3 X Unidentified mark; on bottom of barrel, between trunnions 169 Context Reference # 32 Category Land Site STENAPA office Location Gallows Bay, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’45.53” N Orientation - No. of guns at this location 1 No. of variant styles at this location 1 62°59’10.37” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture England Date of manufacture Around 1690 Pounder designation - Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 105.5 Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button - Cascabel (max.) - Breech 11 Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce 13.8 Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce 17.7 Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings 5.8 Muzzle face - Chase 36.5 Trunnion face - Muzzle 17.5 Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 59 Bore - Comments The gun is in an extremely bad condition: it is highly corroded and cracked, the trunnions and the button are missing, and parts of the bottom of the barrel are gone. The top of the gun is in a better condition. It has previously been in someone’s backyard, but is now property of STENAPA and it will be put on display. The gun has a vent block at the breech. 170 171 Context Reference # 33 Category Battery Site Battery Nassau (SE66) Location Kay Bay on cliff, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’05.88” N Orientation S–N No. of guns at this location 1 No. of variant styles at this location 1 62°58’48.31” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Finspång, Sweden Date of manufacture c. 1700 Pounder designation 12 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 284 Barrel (max.) 40.5 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 259 Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button 25 Cascabel (max.) 45.2 Breech 15 Cascabel (min.) 23.5 First reinforce 66 Button 16.3 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 45 Second reinforce 31 Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face - Chase 104.5 Trunnion face 11.7 Muzzle 36 Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 105.5 Bore - Comments The gun is in a reasonable condition: it is slightly corroded at the back, but the chase and the muzzle are heavily corroded. It is partly buried and laying on its side. The first reinforce ring is made up of a band of seven rings, while the band on the second reinforce consists of at least three rings. The gun has a thick muzzle astragal, three rings on the breech side of the base ring, and its cascabel has six rings. 172 Marking # 1 Inscription Explanation F Foundry mark: Finspång; right trunnion 173 Context Reference # 34 Category Land Site SECAR building Location Rosemary Lane, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’43.74” N Orientation - No. of guns at this location 2 No. of variant styles at this location 2 62°58’45.35” W General Information Type Swivel gun Place of manufacture England Date of manufacture Late 18 century Pounder designation 1 Material Cast iron Weight - th /2 All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 85 Barrel (max.) 13 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 77.8 Barrel (min.) 8 Cascable + button 7.2 Cascabel (max.) 14.1 Breech 6 Cascabel (min.) 7.7 First reinforce 17 Button 5.9 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 15.1 Second reinforce 13 Muzzle swell 11.3 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 7.3 Chase 26.4 Trunnion face 4.2 Muzzle 12 Bore 4.6 Distance between trunnion faces 20.5 Base ring to centre of trunnions 34 Bore - Comments The gun is in reasonable condition: it is corroded and has a blocked bore. It is thought to have been brought up from Oranje Bay, after which it was transferred to the museum and subsequently brought to the SECAR building together with # 35. The gun has a vent block and a single first and second reinforce ring. It is a swivel gun. 174 175 Context Reference # 35 Category Land Site SECAR building Location Rosemary Lane, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’43.74” N Orientation - No. of guns at this location 2 No. of variant styles at this location 2 62°58’45.35” W General Information Type Swivel gun Place of manufacture England Date of manufacture Late 18 century Pounder designation 1 Material Cast iron Weight - th /2 All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 81.5 Barrel (max.) 13.4 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 72.8 Barrel (min.) 8.2 Cascable + button - Cascabel (max.) 12.3 Breech 7 Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce 13 Button 7 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 13.8 Second reinforce 13.5 Muzzle swell 10.2 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 7 Chase 24.5 Trunnion face - Muzzle 11.2 Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 33 Bore - Comments The gun is in reasonable condition: it is corroded and has a blocked bore. It is thought to have been brought up from Oranje Bay, after which it was transferred to the museum and subsequently brought to the SECAR building together with # 34. The gun has a vent block and single first and second reinforce rings. There could be a proof mark ‘P’ on the barrel, which indicates that this gun was used on a merchant vessel. 176 177 Context Reference # 36 Category Battery Site Tumble Down Dick Battery (SE99) Location Tumble Down Dick Bay, oil terminal, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’53.08” N Orientation W–E No. of guns at this location 4 No. of variant styles at this location 2/3 62°59’56.92” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Fossum foundry, by master gunfounder Cai Børting, Norway Date of manufacture 1692 – 1712 Pounder designation 12 Material Cast iron Weight 1561 kg All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 291 Barrel (max.) 42.6 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 268 Barrel (min.) 26.1 Cascable + button 23 Cascabel (max.) 41.9 Breech 11.8 Cascabel (min.) 17.5 First reinforce 50.3 Button 137 Distance between first reinforce rings 4 Base ring 44.9 Second reinforce 52.7 Muzzle swell 28.3 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 22.2 Chase 102 Trunnion face 9.5 Muzzle 37.5 Bore 12.7 Distance between trunnion faces 58.5 Base ring to centre of trunnions 105.5 Bore - Comments The gun is in a sound condition: it is corroded, the trunnion marks are obscured, and the bore is blocked. It is resting on the battery wall. The set of first reinforce rings consists of two bands of four rings each. The second reinforce has a single broad band of rings. The muzzle astragal and the muzzle face are composed of five rings each, and there are two rings on the breech side of the base ring. The left cannon in the picture is the one described here. 178 179 1 Marking # 1 Inscription Explanation H3160A Weight mark: 3160 Amsterdam pounds; base ring 180 Context Reference # 37 Category Battery Site Tumble Down Dick Battery (SE99) Location Tumble Down Dick Bay, oil terminal, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’53.08” N Orientation W–E No. of guns at this location 4 No. of variant styles at this location 2/3 62°59’56.92” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Fossum foundry, by master gunfounder Cai Børting, Norway Date of manufacture 1692 – 1712 Pounder designation 8 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) - Barrel (min.) 22.5 Cascable + button - Cascabel (max.) - Breech - Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce - Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce 49.5 Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings 6.5 Muzzle face 17.5 Chase 84 Trunnion face 8.3 Muzzle 32 Bore 10.7 Distance between trunnion faces 47 Base ring to centre of trunnions - Bore - Comments The gun is in a reasonable condition: it is corroded (there are some heavy corroded parts), partially buried, and the trunnion marks are obscured. It is resting on the battery wall next to # 36. The gun has one broad band of first reinforce rings and two second reinforce rings. The front part of the muzzle is partially missing. 181 182 Context Reference # 38 Category Battery Site Tumble Down Dick Battery (SE99) Location Tumble Down Dick Bay, oil terminal, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’53.08” N Orientation NW – SE No. of guns at this location 4 No. of variant styles at this location 2/3 62°59’56.92” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Fossum foundry, by master gunfounder Cai Børting, Norway Date of manufacture 1692 – 1712 Pounder designation 12 Material Cast iron Weight Between 1532 and 1580 kg All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 293.5 Barrel (max.) 39 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 267 Barrel (min.) 25 Cascable + button 26.5 Cascabel (max.) 39 Breech 12 Cascabel (min.) 17.5 First reinforce 59 Button 13.9 Distance between first reinforce rings 9.4 Base ring 42 Second reinforce 56 Muzzle swell 26.5 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 21.5 Chase 98 Trunnion face - Muzzle 37 Bore 12.9 Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 108.5 Bore - Comments The gun is in a reasonable condition: it is corroded and the trunnions are beaten off. It is laying on the slope of the battery. This gun is of the same type as # 17, 36, and 55. 183 184 1 Marking # 1 Inscription Explanation H31…… Weight mark: at least 3100 Amsterdam pounds; first reinforce 185 Context Reference # 39 Category Battery Site Tumble Down Dick Battery (SE99) Location Tumble Down Dick Bay, oil terminal, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’53.70” N Orientation W–E No. of guns at this location 4 No. of variant styles at this location 2/3 62°59’56.80” W General Information Type Finbanker type B or Åker Place of manufacture Finspång, Sweden or Åkersbruk, Sweden Date of manufacture - Pounder designation 6 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 238 Barrel (max.) 36.1 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 222 Barrel (min.) 19.1 Cascable + button 16 Cascabel (max.) 35.8 Breech 12.5 Cascabel (min.) 21 First reinforce 54.5 Button 9.4 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 37.8 Second reinforce 42 Muzzle swell 20.3 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 15.5 Chase 80 Trunnion face 7.6 Muzzle 29.5 Bore 9.6 Distance between trunnion faces 43 Base ring to centre of trunnions 89 Bore - Comments The gun is in a bad condition: it is heavily corroded, has a blocked bore, and all marks are obscured. It is resting on the battery wall. The first reinforce rings consist of one narrow and one broad band. The same is true for the second reinforce rings. 186 187 Context Reference # 40 Category Fort Site Fort Panga (SE97) Location On top of Signal Hill, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’43.77” N Orientation N–S No. of guns at this location 5 No. of variant styles at this location 2 62°59’24.44” W General Information Type 1766 pattern Place of manufacture Ruelle, by master gunfounder Baynaud, France Date of manufacture Around 1772 Pounder designation 4 Material Cast iron Weight Around 600 kg All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 193 Barrel (max.) 28.5 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 178.5 Barrel (min.) 18.6 Cascable + button 14.5 Cascabel (max.) 22 Breech 18.5 Cascabel (min.) 12 First reinforce 46.5 Button 10.6 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 30 Second reinforce 25 Muzzle swell 22.5 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 18.7 Chase 64.3 Trunnion face 7.7 Muzzle 23 Bore 8.9 Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 76 Bore - Comments The gun is in a good condition: it is lightly corroded, the bore is blocked, and the trunnion faces are obscured. It is resting on a wall of the fort. 188 189 Context Reference # 41 Category Fort Site Fort Panga (SE97) Location On top of Signal Hill, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’43.77” N Orientation SE – NW No. of guns at this location 5 No. of variant styles at this location 2 62°59’24.44” W General Information Type 1766 pattern Place of manufacture Ruelle, by master gunfounder Baynaud, France Date of manufacture Around 1772 Pounder designation 4 Material Cast iron Weight 604 kg All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 193 Barrel (max.) 27.5 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 180.4 Barrel (min.) 20.5 Cascable + button 12.6 Cascabel (max.) 21 Breech 14.7 Cascabel (min.) 11.5 First reinforce 44.2 Button 10.8 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 29 Second reinforce 26 Muzzle swell 24.8 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 19 Chase 65 Trunnion face 7.8 Muzzle 24.8 Bore 8.8 Distance between trunnion faces 42.2 Base ring to centre of trunnions 79 Bore - Comments The gun is in good condition: it is lightly corroded, has a blocked bore, and is resting on a wall of the fort. 190 191 1 2 Marking # Inscription 3 Explanation 1 …..19P1234 2 BA 19: part of the casting number P1234: weight in French pounds (Livre de Paris); base ring Maker’s mark: Baynaud; left trunnion 3 RV Foundry mark: Ruelle; right trunnion 192 Context Reference # 42 Category Fort Site Fort Panga (SE97) Location On top of Signal Hill, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’43.77” N Orientation W–E No. of guns at this location 5 No. of variant styles at this location 2 62°59’24.44” W General Information Type 1766 pattern Place of manufacture Ruelle, by master gunfounder Baynaud, France Date of manufacture 1772 Pounder designation 4 Material Cast iron Weight Around 600 kg All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 195.5 Barrel (max.) 28.3 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 178.7 Barrel (min.) 19.7 Cascable + button 17.8 Cascabel (max.) 24.5 Breech 13.9 Cascabel (min.) 10.3 First reinforce 47.1 Button 10.9 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 31.5 Second reinforce 25.3 Muzzle swell 24.4 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 18.8 Chase 67.7 Trunnion face 7.7 Muzzle 24 Bore 8.6 Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 77 Bore - Comments The gun is in good condition: it has light corrosion and has a blocked bore. It is resting on the wall of the fort. 193 194 1 2 Marking # Inscription Explanation 1 BA Maker’s mark: Baynaud; left trunnion 2 A1772…….. Year of manufacture; base ring 195 Context Reference # 43 Category Fort Site Fort Panga (SE97) Location On top of Signal Hill, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’43.77” N Orientation - No. of guns at this location 5 No. of variant styles at this location 2 62°59’24.44” W General Information Type Armstrong Place of manufacture England Date of manufacture 1726 – 1794 Pounder designation 6 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) 33 (approx.) Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) - Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button 19.4 Cascabel (max.) 28.5 Breech 15 Cascabel (min.) 16.7 First reinforce 39.7 Button 11.2 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 37.5 (approx.) Second reinforce 33.4 Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings 11.2 Muzzle face - Chase - Trunnion face 8.6 Muzzle - Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 76 Bore - Comments The gun is in good condition: it has light corrosion and is partially buried. Due to the corrosion all marks are obscured. This gun probably fell off the top of the cliff. 196 197 Context Reference # 44 Category Fort Site Fort Panga (SE97) Location On top of Signal Hill, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’43.77” N Orientation - No. of guns at this location 5 No. of variant styles at this location 2 62°59’24.44” W General Information Type 1766 pattern Place of manufacture Ruelle, by master gunfounder Baynaud, France Date of manufacture Around 1772 Pounder designation 4 Material Cast iron Weight Around 600 kg All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 193 (approx.) Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 178.5 Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button 14.5 Cascabel (max.) - Breech 16 (approx.) Cascabel (min.) 11 (approx.) First reinforce 44.9 Button 10.7 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce 25.3 Muzzle swell 24.9 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 18.5 Chase 65.6 Trunnion face 7.7 Muzzle 23.3 Bore 8.3 Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 75 Bore - Comments The gun is in good condition: it has light corrosion and is partially buried. The markings on the base ring are obscured. It probably fell down from the top of the cliff. 198 1 Marking # 1 Inscription Explanation BA Maker’s mark: Baynaud; left trunnion 199 Context Reference # 45 Category Battery Site Battery Jussac (SE98) Location Signal Hill, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’48.26” N Orientation N–S No. of guns at this location 4 No. of variant styles at this location 3 62°59’32.15” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Fossum foundry, by master gunfounder Cai Børting, Norway Date of manufacture 1692 – 1712 Pounder designation 12 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 282 Barrel (max.) 39.5 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 257.5 Barrel (min.) 25.9 Cascable + button 24.5 Cascabel (max.) 40 Breech 12 Cascabel (min.) 17 First reinforce 54 Button 13.2 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 43.5 Second reinforce 54.6 Muzzle swell 23 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 29 Chase 97 Trunnion face 12.2 Muzzle 34.5 Bore 12.8 Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 104 Bore - Comments The gun is in good condition: it is lying on its side and resting on the battery wall; it has light corrosion, and as a result the marks are obscured. It has one broad band of rings in front and behind the trunnions. This gun is similar to # 30. 200 201 Context Reference # 46 Category Battery Site Battery Jussac (SE98) Location Signal Hill, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’48.26” N Orientation E–W No. of guns at this location 4 No. of variant styles at this location 3 62°59’32.15” W General Information Type 1766 pattern Place of manufacture Ruelle, by master gunfounder Baynaud, France Date of manufacture 1772 Pounder designation 4 Material Cast iron Weight Around 600 kg All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 197 (approx.) Barrel (max.) 30.4 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 179 Barrel (min.) 19.2 Cascable + button 18 Cascabel (max.) 26 (approx.) Breech 16.2 Cascabel (min.) 11.3 First reinforce 44.8 Button 10.6 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 31.5 Second reinforce 25.3 Muzzle swell 24.7 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 18.5 Chase 64.8 Trunnion face 7.9 Muzzle 22 Bore 8.3 Distance between trunnion faces 49 (approx.) Base ring to centre of trunnions 76 Bore 166.4 Comments The gun is in good condition: it has light corrosion and is resting on the battery wall. 202 203 1 2 Marking # Inscription Explanation 1 A1772………. Year of manufacture; base ring 2 RV Foundry mark: Ruelle; right trunnion 204 Context Reference # 47 Category Battery Site Battery Jussac (SE98) Location Signal Hill, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’48.26” N Orientation - No. of guns at this location 4 No. of variant styles at this location 3 62°59’32.15” W General Information Type 1766 Place of manufacture Ruelle, by master gunfounder Baynaud, France Date of manufacture Around 1772 Pounder designation 4 Material Cast iron Weight 604 kg All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 194.6 Barrel (max.) 30.5 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 179 Barrel (min.) 22 Cascable + button 15.6 Cascabel (max.) 21 Breech 16.3 Cascabel (min.) 14.5 First reinforce 44.5 Button 10.6 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 31 Second reinforce 24.2 Muzzle swell 24 (approx.) Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 18.3 Chase 65.7 Trunnion face 7.7 Muzzle 22 Bore 8.3 Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 76.5 Bore 167 Comments The gun is in good condition: it has light corrosion and has fallen off the top of the cliff. 205 206 1 2 Marking # Inscription 1 32P1234 2 RV Explanation 32: part of the casting number P1234: weight in French pounds (Livre de Paris); base ring Foundry mark: Ruelle; right trunnion 207 Context Reference # 48 Category Battery Site Battery Jussac (SE98) Location Signal Hill, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’48.26” N Orientation - No. of guns at this location 4 No. of variant styles at this location 3 62°59’32.15” W General Information Type Finbanker, Dutch fortress pattern Place of manufacture Finspång, Sweden Date of manufacture 1786 Pounder designation 3 Material Cast iron Weight 485 kg All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) 27 (approx.) Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) - Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button 10.5 Cascabel (max.) 30 (approx.) Breech - Cascabel (min.) 14.8 First reinforce 52.9 Button 8.1 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 30 (approx.) Second reinforce 33.3 Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face - Chase 79.6 Trunnion face 8.2 Muzzle - Bore - Distance between trunnion faces 38.5 (approx.) Base ring to centre of trunnions 85 Bore - Comments The gun is in reasonable condition: it is corroded and fallen off the top of the cliff. The muzzle of the gun is buried. This is the same type of cannon that is found in Fort Oranje. 208 209 1 2 Marking # Inscription 3 Explanation 1 …….IV 977 W III XI V 2 F Casting number: Weight mark: 977 Amsterdam pounds Weight mark: 3 skeppund, 11 lispund, 5 pund; first reinforce Foundry mark: Finspång; right trunnion 3 1786 Year of manufacture; left trunnion 210 Context Reference # 49 Category Land Site Outside harbour office, in front yard Location Gallows Bay, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’40.54” N Orientation SW – NE No. of guns at this location 1 No. of variant styles at this location 1 62°59’08.92” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture England Date of manufacture mid- to late 17 century Pounder designation 6 Material Cast iron Weight - th All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 241.7 Barrel (max.) 32.5 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 224.2 Barrel (min.) 17.5 Cascable + button 17.5 Cascabel (max.) 35 Breech 12.8 Cascabel (min.) 19 First reinforce 47 Button 14.5 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 36 Second reinforce 40.7 Muzzle swell 26 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 19.5 Chase 94.9 Trunnion face 8 Muzzle 28.8 Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 89.2 Bore - Comments The gun is in good condition: it has some light corrosion, the bore is blocked, and the right trunnion has been beaten off. The gun has single first and second reinforce rings and a vent block. Although it is really hard to see, there is a royal cipher present on the second reinforce. 211 212 Context Reference # 50 Category Land Site Schotsenhoek plantation house (SE92) Location St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’23.70” N Orientation SE – NW No. of guns at this location 1 No. of variant styles at this location 1 62°59’14.29” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Prussia or Scandinavia Date of manufacture Around 1700 Pounder designation - Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 239.5 Barrel (max.) 34.3 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 219 Barrel (min.) 18.3 Cascable + button 20.5 Cascabel (max.) 35.6 Breech 12.5 Cascabel (min.) 19 First reinforce 48.3 Button 11.7 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 36.6 Second reinforce 42.7 Muzzle swell 21.9 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 18 Chase 82.5 Trunnion face 9.9 Muzzle 28 Bore 10.1 (approx.) Distance between trunnion faces 50.2 Base ring to centre of trunnions 82 Bore - Comments This gun was used as a bollard on the corner of Kerkweg and Fort Oranjestraat until the 1960’s, when it was paved over. In 2008 it was unearthed and brought over to its current location. The type of gun, the way it is painted, and the cannonball in the bore all indicate that this gun had the same purpose as the three cannon incorporated in the monument in Fort Oranje. The gun has a large number of rings: six on the cascabel, four on the breech side of the base ring, three on the vent field astragal, and six on the muzzle astragal. The first reinforce rings consist of one broad and one narrower band of rings, while the second reinforce rings are made up of one broad and one narrower band of rings as well. The broader bands are located closest to the trunnions on both sides. All the marks on the gun are obscured due to the thick layer of paint. 213 214 Context Reference # 51 Category Fort Site Fort Royal (SE96) Location Southwestern tip of Horseshoe formation, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’18.58” N Orientation - No. of guns at this location 7 No. of variant styles at this location 4 62°59’42.47” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Åkersbruk furnace, by master gunfounder Wattrang, Sweden Date of manufacture 1676 – 1700 Pounder designation 6 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) - Barrel (min.) 19 Cascable + button - Cascabel (max.) - Breech - Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce - Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce 41.5 Muzzle swell 20 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 17.5 Chase 76.5 Trunnion face 8.8 Muzzle 29 Bore 10.4 Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions - Bore 210 Comments The gun is in good condition: it has light corrosion and is partially buried. A broad band of rings constitutes the muzzle astragal. The first reinforce rings consist of one narrow and one broad band of rings; the same is true for the second reinforce rings. 215 1 Marking # 1 Inscription Explanation WA Maker’s mark: Wattrang; right trunnion 216 1 Context Reference # 52 Category Fort Site Fort Royal (SE96) Location Southwestern tip of Horseshoe formation, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’18.58” N Orientation E–W No. of guns at this location 7 No. of variant styles at this location 4 62°59’42.47” W General Information Type Date of manufacture Borgard Heathfield furnace in Sussex, by master gunfounder Major John Fuller or his son John Fuller II, England 1716 – 1725 Pounder designation 12 Material Cast iron Weight - Place of manufacture All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 241 Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button - Cascabel (max.) - Breech 17 Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce 53 Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce 44.5 Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings 11 Muzzle face - Chase 82 Trunnion face 10.5 Muzzle 28.5 Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 105.5 Bore - Comments The gun is in good condition: it has light corrosion, is partially buried, and has a blocked bore. This is the same type of gun as # 29. 217 1 Marking # 1 Inscription Explanation IF Maker’s mark: John Fuller; left trunnion 218 Context Reference # 53 Category Fort Site Fort Royal (SE96) Location Southwestern tip of Horseshoe formation, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’18.58” N Orientation S–N No. of guns at this location 7 No. of variant styles at this location 4 62°59’42.47” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Åkersbruk furnace, by master gunfounder Wattrang, Sweden Date of manufacture 1676 – 1700 Pounder designation 6 Material Cast iron Weight 835 kg All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 223.2 Barrel (min.) 18.8 Cascable + button - Cascabel (max.) - Breech 14.3 Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce 55.5 Button - Distance between first reinforce rings 4 Base ring - Second reinforce 51.3 Muzzle swell 21.3 Distance between second reinforce rings 4 Muzzle face 16.5 Chase 76.5 Trunnion face 8.8 Muzzle 29.5 Bore 10.2 Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 91.5 Bore - Comments This is the same type of gun as # 51. It is in good condition: it has light corrosion, is partially buried, and has a blocked bore. A great number of rings are visible: at least five on the cascabel, four on the breech side of the base ring, three on the vent field astragal, six on the muzzle astragal, and five on the muzzle face. The first and second reinforce rings are identical and consist of a narrow band of three rings and a broad band of seven rings. 219 220 1 2 Marking # Inscription Explanation 1 H1690A Weight mark: 1690 Amsterdam pounds; base ring 2 WA Maker’s mark: Wattrang; right trunnion 221 2 Context Reference # 54 Category Fort Site Fort Royal (SE96) Location Southwestern tip of Horseshoe formation, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’18.58” N Orientation S–N No. of guns at this location 7 No. of variant styles at this location 4 62°59’42.47” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Åkersbruk furnace, Sweden Date of manufacture 1717 Pounder designation 6 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 225 Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button - Cascabel (max.) - Breech 14 Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce 55.5 Button - Distance between first reinforce rings 4 Base ring - Second reinforce 41.5 Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings 4 Muzzle face - Chase 75.5 Trunnion face 9.2 Muzzle 30.5 Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 90 Bore - Comments This is the same type of gun as # 51 and 53. It is in good condition: it has light corrosion, is partially buried, and has a blocked bore. A great number of rings are visible: at least five on the cascabel, four on the breech side of the base ring, three on the vent field astragal, six on the muzzle astragal, and five on the muzzle face. The first and second reinforce rings are identical and consist of a narrow band of three rings and a broad band of seven rings. 222 1 Marking # 1 Inscription Explanation …..17 Year of manufacture; left trunnion 223 Context Reference # 55 Category Fort Site Fort Royal (SE96) Location Southwestern tip of Horseshoe formation, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’18.58” N Orientation S–W No. of guns at this location 7 No. of variant styles at this location 4 62°59’42.47” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Fossum foundry, by master gunfounder Cai Børting, Norway Date of manufacture 1692 – 1712 Pounder designation 12 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 270.7 Barrel (min.) 28 Cascable + button - Cascabel (max.) - Breech 14 Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce 52.4 Button - Distance between first reinforce rings 4.5 Base ring - Second reinforce 50 Muzzle swell 31 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face - Chase 109.3 Trunnion face 13.8 Muzzle 40.5 Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 120 Bore - Comments The gun is in good condition: it is lightly corroded (the muzzle is heavily corroded), partially buried, and has a blocked bore. There are a great number of rings visible: two on the breech side of the base ring, three on the vent field astragal, five on the muzzle astragal, and five on the muzzle face. The rings on the cascabel are obscured or there aren’t any present. The first reinforce rings consist of two bands of five rings each, while the second reinforce ring is made up of one broad band of seven rings. This is the same type of gun as # 17, 36, 38, and 58. 224 225 1 Marking # 1 Inscription Explanation G Unidentified mark: possibly Louis de Geer; left trunnion 226 Context Reference # 56 Category Fort Site Fort Royal (SE96) Location Southwestern tip of Horseshoe formation, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’18.58” N Orientation S–N No. of guns at this location 7 No. of variant styles at this location 4 62°59’42.47” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Finspång, Sweden Date of manufacture c. 1700 Pounder designation 12 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 259.5 Barrel (min.) 23.5 Cascable + button - Cascabel (max.) - Breech 17 Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce 65.2 Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce 30.3 Muzzle swell 27.3 Distance between second reinforce rings 8 Muzzle face 25 Chase 98.5 Trunnion face 10.9 Muzzle 36 Bore 13 Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 105.5 Bore 247 Comments The gun is in good condition: it is lightly corroded and partially buried. A great number of rings are visible: two on the breech side of the base ring, three on the vent field astragal, six on the muzzle astragal, and five on the muzzle face. The first reinforce ring consists of one broad band of rings, but it is hard to see exactly how many. The second reinforce rings are made up of one thick and one thinner ring. 227 Marking # Inscription Explanation 1 1 F 228 Foundry mark: Finspång; right trunnion Context Reference # 57 Category Fort Site Fort Royal (SE96) Location Southwestern tip of Horseshoe formation, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°29’18.58” N Orientation NE – SW No. of guns at this location 7 No. of variant styles at this location 4 62°59’42.47” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Finspång, Sweden Date of manufacture c. 1700 Pounder designation 12 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) - Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button - Cascabel (max.) - Breech - Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce - Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce - Muzzle swell 31 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 27 Chase 106.5 Trunnion face - Muzzle 35.3 Bore 13.7 Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions - Bore - Comments The gun is in good condition: it is lightly corroded, partially buried, and has a blocked bore. It is the same type of gun as # 25, 33, 37, and 56. The only rings that are visible on this gun are the second reinforce rings (one thick and one thinner ring), the muzzle astragal (six rings), and the muzzle face (five rings). 229 230 Context Reference # 58 Category Land Site Peterson’s Paradise, opposite Wilhelmina Park Location Oranjestad, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’50.96” N Orientation N–S No. of guns at this location 1 No. of variant styles at this location 1 62°59’07.53” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Fossum foundry, by master gunfounder Cai Børting, Norway Date of manufacture 1692 – 1712 Pounder designation 6 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 242 Barrel (max.) 36.9 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 221 Barrel (min.) 21.3 Cascable + button 21 Cascabel (max.) 36.6 Breech 10 Cascabel (min.) 20 First reinforce 48.5 Button 12.3 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 37.6 Second reinforce 43 Muzzle swell 22.3 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 18 Chase 84.2 Trunnion face 9.1 Muzzle 30 Bore 8.9 Distance between trunnion faces 48 Base ring to centre of trunnions 95 Bore - Comments The gun is in a reasonable condition: it is restored to a replica carriage, is partly corroded, and has a blocked bore. All marks are obscured as a result of the paint. The gun has a broad band of rings on either side of the trunnions. According to the owner the gun has been in this location as long as he can remember. 231 232 Context Reference # 59 Category Land Site Private backyard Location On the road to White Wall, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’12.9” N Orientation W–E No. of guns at this location 1 No. of variant styles at this location 1 62°58’48.56” W General Information Type Swivel gun Place of manufacture England Date of manufacture Late 18 century Pounder designation 1 Material Cast iron Weight - th /2 All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 84 Barrel (max.) 16.5 Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 75 Barrel (min.) 9.8 Cascable + button 9 Cascabel (max.) - Breech 5 Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce 14 Button 5.6 Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring 18 Second reinforce 15.5 Muzzle swell 12.1 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 10.1 Chase 25.8 Trunnion face - Muzzle 12.8 Bore 4.1 Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions - Bore - Comments This swivel gun is in a bad state: it is heavily corroded. It has a vent block. 233 234 Context Reference # 60 Category Underwater Site In front of Golden Rock dive centre Location Gallows Bay, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’44.86” N Orientation - No. of guns at this location 3 No. of variant styles at this location - 62°59’12.79” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Probably England Date of manufacture - Pounder designation 6 Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 238 Barrel (min.) 23.2 Cascable + button - Cascabel (max.) - Breech 19 Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce 48 Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce 42 Muzzle swell 28.3 Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 23 Chase 103 Trunnion face 10 Muzzle 26 Bore 9 (approx.) Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 89 Bore - Comments The encrusted gun is resting on a wall. Visible are a single first reinforce ring and one or two second reinforce rings. This gun was originally located in the water next to the pier, but was subsequently moved to its current position by the owner of Golden Rock Dive Centre. Due to the encrustation it was not possible to identify the cannon with certainty, although it appears to be English. 235 236 Context Reference # 61 Category Underwater Site In front of Golden Rock dive centre Location Gallows Bay, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’44.86” N Orientation - No. of guns at this location 3 No. of variant styles at this location - 62°59’12.79” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture - Date of manufacture - Pounder designation - Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 108 Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button - Cascabel (max.) - Breech 5 Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce 27 Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce 24 Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 20 Chase 35 Trunnion face - Muzzle 17 Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 43 Bore - Comments The gun is encrusted and is resting on a wall. Visible are one first and one second reinforce ring. According to a staff member of Golden Rock dive centre, this cannon was discovered at an underwater site further north, but was later moved into its current position. 237 238 Context Reference # 62 Category Underwater Site In front of Golden Rock dive centre Location Gallows Bay, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’44.86” N Orientation - No. of guns at this location 3 No. of variant styles at this location - 62°59’12.79” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Probably England Date of manufacture - Pounder designation - Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 117 Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 100 Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button 17 Cascabel (max.) - Breech 13 Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce 15 Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce 22 Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face 19 Chase 24 Trunnion face - Muzzle 26 Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions - Bore - Comments The gun is encrusted and is resting on a wall. Visible are one first and two second reinforce rings. According to a staff member of Golden Rock dive centre, this cannon was discovered at an underwater site further north, but was later moved into its current position. 239 61 62 240 Context Reference # 63 Category Underwater Site In front of Dive Statia, at yellow buoy Location Oranje Bay, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’56.93” N Orientation - No. of guns at this location 1 No. of variant styles at this location 1 62°59’18.80” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture - Date of manufacture - Pounder designation - Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) - Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button - Cascabel (max.) - Breech - Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce - Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce - Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face - Chase - Trunnion face - Muzzle - Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions - Bore - Comments This cannon was too encrusted to measure accurately. It could not be identified. It was put here by the owner of Dive Statia, so it’s not in its original location. 241 242 Context Reference # 64 Category Isolated site Site Twelve Guns Location Marine Park, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’12.66” N Orientation SE – NW No. of guns at this location - No. of variant styles at this location - 62°58’58.32” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture - Date of manufacture - Pounder designation - Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 173 Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 157 Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button 16 Cascabel (max.) - Breech 10 Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce 30 Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce 32 Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face - Chase 70 Trunnion face - Muzzle 15 Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 68 Bore - Comments This gun is too encrusted to be identified. There are possibly two second reinforce rings on this gun, although this can’t be confirmed. It appears that the first reinforce ring is a broad band. 243 65 64 244 Twelve Guns 71 67 66 70 65 69 64 68 245 Context Reference # 65 Category Isolated site Site Twelve Guns Location Marine Park, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’12.66” N Orientation NW – SE No. of guns at this location - No. of variant styles at this location - 62°58’58.32” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture - Date of manufacture - Pounder designation - Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 187 Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 171 Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button 16 Cascabel (max.) - Breech + first reinforce 39 Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce - Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce 32 Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face - Chase 71 Trunnion face - Muzzle 29 Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 71 Bore - Comments This gun is too encrusted to be identified. Two bands of second reinforce rings are visible. 246 247 Context Reference # 66 Category Isolated site Site Twelve Guns Location Marine Park, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’12.66” N Orientation SE – NW No. of guns at this location - No. of variant styles at this location - 62°58’58.32” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture - Date of manufacture - Pounder designation - Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 149 Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 135 Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button 14 Cascabel (max.) - Breech 10 Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce 27 Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce 34 Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face - Chase 43 Trunnion face - Muzzle 21 Bore 7 (approx.) Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 58 Bore - Comments The gun is too encrusted to be identified. 248 67 66 249 Context Reference # 67 Category Isolated site Site Twelve Guns Location Marine Park, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’12.66” N Orientation - No. of guns at this location - No. of variant styles at this location - 62°58’58.32” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Possibly Sweden Date of manufacture - Pounder designation - Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 191 Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 167 Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button 24 Cascabel (max.) - Breech 6 Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce 49 Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce 35 Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face - Chase 56 Trunnion face - Muzzle 21 Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 73 Bore - Comments The gun is too encrusted to be identified with certainty. However, a broad band of second reinforce rings suggests that it may have been manufactured in Sweden. 250 251 Context Reference # 68 Category Isolated site Site Twelve Guns Location Marine Park, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’12.66” N Orientation - No. of guns at this location - No. of variant styles at this location - 62°58’58.32” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture Probably England Date of manufacture - Pounder designation - Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 193 Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 176 Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button 17 Cascabel (max.) - Breech 18 Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce 43 Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce 39 Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face - Chase 50 Trunnion face - Muzzle 26 Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 80 Bore - Comments The gun is too encrusted to be identified with certainty, although it appears to have one first and two second reinforce rings, indicating that this is probably an English gun. 252 253 Context Reference # 69 Category Isolated site Site Twelve Guns Location Marine Park, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’12.66” N Orientation - No. of guns at this location - No. of variant styles at this location - 62°58’58.32” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture - Date of manufacture - Pounder designation - Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 181 Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) 163 Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button 18 Cascabel (max.) - Breech 9 Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce 36 Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce 42 Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face - Chase 55 Trunnion face - Muzzle 21 Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 79 Bore - Comments The gun is too encrusted to be identified. 254 70 69 255 Context Reference # 70 Category Isolated site Site Twelve Guns Location Marine Park, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’12.66” N Orientation - No. of guns at this location - No. of variant styles at this location - 62°58’58.32” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture - Date of manufacture - Pounder designation - Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) 190 Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) - Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button - Cascabel (max.) - Breech - Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce - Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce - Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face - Chase 68 Trunnion face - Muzzle 27 Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions - Bore - Comments The gun is too encrusted and damaged to be identified. 256 257 Context Reference # 71 Category Isolated site Site Twelve Guns Location Marine Park, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’12.66” N Orientation - No. of guns at this location - No. of variant styles at this location - 62°58’58.32” W General Information Type - Place of manufacture - Date of manufacture - Pounder designation - Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) - Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button 16 Cascabel (max.) - Breech 10 Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce 34 Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce 30 Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face - Chase - Trunnion face - Muzzle - Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions 65 Bore - Comments The gun is too encrusted to be identified. It is also partially buried. 258 259 Context Reference # 72 Category Isolated site Site Offshore just south of twelve guns Location Marine Park, St. Eustatius GPS-Coördinates 17°28’03.61” N Orientation - No. of guns at this location 1 No. of variant styles at this location 1 62°58’50.72” W (approx.) General Information Type - Place of manufacture - Date of manufacture - Pounder designation - Material Cast iron Weight - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Lengths Diameters Overall (muzzle face to back of button) - Barrel (max.) - Barrel (muzzle face to back of base ring) - Barrel (min.) - Cascable + button - Cascabel (max.) - Breech - Cascabel (min.) - First reinforce - Button - Distance between first reinforce rings - Base ring - Second reinforce - Muzzle swell - Distance between second reinforce rings - Muzzle face - Chase - Trunnion face - Muzzle - Bore - Distance between trunnion faces - Base ring to centre of trunnions - Bore - Comments This gun was discovered by a local person and is known to almost no one. Although it is encrusted, the short button and reinforce rings suggest that this could be the same type of gun as # 49. It is located south of twelve guns (an approximate fifteen minute swim), at about 2.5 meters deep. There are a number of coastal batteries close to this gun. 260 261 262 Appendix 3: Anchor Database 263 264 Anchor types on St. Eustatius # 1002, 1005, 1011, 1012, 1014 # 1001, 1004, 1008, 1009, 1010 265 # 1013 # 1003 # 1007 266 Context Features Reference # 1001 Shape of flukes Tipped spade Category Land Stock type Wood over Site Rundown house Stock section - Location H.M. Queen Beatrixweg, next to hospital Stock shape - Stock fasteners - GPS Coördinates 17°28’55.91” N 62°58’56.55” W Ship name - Stock key Parallel Ship type - Shank form Oval Ship size - Crown Pointed Function Stream on large, bower on small ship Arms Straight Anchor type Old Admiralty Longshank anchor Weight - Date and Origin Features Date - Period Early 18 century Stock Squaring of shank V Nationality English Ring - Certainty Confirmed Shackle - Number of arms 2 Inscriptions - th Shank Length of shank 422 Diameter of top of shank 8.3 - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Diameter of bottom of shank 13.9 Fluke Diameter of stock eye Width of fluke - Length of fluke 58.5 8.1 Arms Length of one arm 133 Ring Amplitude of arms - Diameter of ring - Height of bills 94 Diameter of eye of ring - Distance between bills - Thickness of ring - Shackle Stock Diameter of shackle - Length of stock - Diameter of eye of shackle - Max. diameter (if round/oval) - Thickness of shackle pin - Min. diameter (if round/oval) - Opening of shackle - Max. thickness (if square/rect) - Key Min. thickness (if square/rect) - Height of key 3.5 Max. width (if square/rect) - Distance of key 39.5 Min. width (if square/rect) - Comments The anchor is in a very bad state: it is heavily corroded and disintegrating. The left fluke is missing, as are the stock and the ring/shackle. 267 268 Context Features Reference # 1002 Shape of flukes Tipped spade Category Land Stock type Metal bent Site Hotel Old Gin House, near pool Stock section Oval Location Oranje Bay, St. Eustatius Stock shape Upturned Stock fasteners - GPS Coördinates 17°28’56.60” N 62°59’13.52” W Ship name - Stock key - Ship type - Shank form Round / oval Ship size - Crown Pointed Function Kedge anchor Arms Angled sections Anchor type Dutch with Engelsche bladen Weight 173 kg Date and Origin Features Date - Period Late 18 – early 19 century Stock Squaring of shank V Nationality Dutch Ring V Certainty Confirmed Shackle - Number of arms 2 Inscriptions - th th Shank Length of shank 170 Diameter of top of shank 4.4 V All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Diameter of bottom of shank 7.3 Fluke Diameter of stock eye Width of fluke 22.5 Length of fluke 30 - Arms Length of one arm 62 Ring Amplitude of arms - Diameter of ring 22.6 Height of bills 33.5 Diameter of eye of ring 4.2 Distance between bills - Thickness of ring 2.1 Shackle Stock Diameter of shackle - Length of stock 81 (one side) Diameter of eye of shackle - Max. diameter (if round/oval) 7.8 Thickness of shackle pin - Min. diameter (if round/oval) 3.4 Opening of shackle - Max. thickness (if square/rect) - Key Min. thickness (if square/rect) - Height of key - Max. width (if square/rect) - Distance of key - Min. width (if square/rect) - Comments The anchor was found between warehouse ruins behind the Old Gin House after a hurricane a few years ago (see picture). It is in a very bad condition: it is heavily corroded, part of the stock is missing, one arm is bent, and the ring is heavily damaged. According to an employee of the Gin House, an archaeologist had identified this anchor as being an early seventeenth century type. This, however, is incorrect, since anchors were only started to be fitted with iron stocks in the late eighteenth century. 269 270 Warehouse ruins behind the Old Gin House, where the anchor was found. 271 Context Features Reference # 1003 Shape of flukes Tipped spade Category Land Stock type Metal Site Dive Statia, in front of the toilets Stock section Circle Location Oranje Bay, St. Eustatius Stock shape - Stock fasteners - GPS Coördinates 17°28’57.65” N 62°59’15.86” W Ship name - Stock key - Ship type - Shank form Round / oval Ship size - Crown Rounded Function Kedge anchor Arms Arc Anchor type Sir William Parker’s Admiralty anchor Weight - Date and Origin Features Date - Stock Period Terminus post quem 1841 Squaring of shank V Nationality English Ring - Certainty Confirmed Shackle V Number of arms 2 Inscriptions - Shank Length of shank 112.5 Diameter of top of shank 5.6 V All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Diameter of bottom of shank 8.7 Fluke Diameter of stock eye Width of fluke - Length of fluke 27 5.5 Arms Length of one arm 59 Ring Amplitude of arms 130 Diameter of ring - Height of bills 35 Diameter of eye of ring - Distance between bills 98 Thickness of ring - Shackle Stock Diameter of shackle - Length of stock - Diameter of eye of shackle - Max. diameter (if round/oval) - Thickness of shackle pin 4.1 Min. diameter (if round/oval) 3 Opening of shackle - Max. thickness (if square/rect) - Key Min. thickness (if square/rect) - Height of key - Max. width (if square/rect) - Distance of key - Min. width (if square/rect) - Comments The anchor is in a reasonable condition: it is corroded, but all the features are still present. The shackle, stock and flukes are partly buried. This anchor was discovered underwater not far from Dive Statia and was subsequently brought to its current location. 272 273 Context Features Reference # 1004 Shape of flukes Tipped spade Category Isolated site Stock type Metal bent Site Double wreck Stock section Circular Location Marine Park, St. Eustatius Stock shape Straight Stock fasteners - GPS Coördinates 17°28’47.52” N 62°59’38.46” W Ship name - Stock key - Ship type - Shank form Round/oval Ship size - Crown Pointed Function Stream anchor Arms Straight Anchor type Admiralty Longshank anchor Weight - Date and Origin Features Date - Period Early 19 century Stock Squaring of shank V Nationality English Ring V Certainty Confirmed Shackle - Number of arms 2 Inscriptions - th Shank Length of shank 296 Diameter of top of shank - V All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Diameter of bottom of shank - Fluke Diameter of stock eye Width of fluke 40 Length of fluke 47 - Arms Length of one arm 105 Ring Amplitude of arms 210 Diameter of ring 51 Height of bills 54 Diameter of eye of ring - Distance between bills 177 Thickness of ring - Shackle Stock Diameter of shackle - Length of stock 270 Diameter of eye of shackle - Max. diameter (if round/oval) - Thickness of shackle pin - Min. diameter (if round/oval) - Opening of shackle - Max. thickness (if square/rect) - Key Min. thickness (if square/rect) - Height of key - Max. width (if square/rect) - Distance of key - Min. width (if square/rect) - Comments The anchor is completely intact and overgrown with come coral. The straight arms indicate that it is an English anchor. 274 275 1004 1005 276 Context Features Reference # 1005 Shape of flukes Tipped triangle Category Isolated site Stock type Wood over Site Double wreck Stock section - Location Marine Park, St. Eustatius Stock shape - Stock fasteners - GPS Coördinates 17°28’47.52” N 62°59’38.46” W Ship name - Stock key Parallel Ship type - Shank form Round/oval Ship size - Crown Tipped Function Kedge anchor Arms Angled sections Anchor type Dutch anchor with Engelsche Bladen Weight 385 kg Date and Origin Features Date - Period Late 18 -early 19 century Stock Squaring of shank V Nationality Dutch Ring V Certainty Confirmed Shackle - Number of arms 2 Inscriptions - th th Shank Length of shank 222 Diameter of top of shank - - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Diameter of bottom of shank - Fluke Diameter of stock eye Width of fluke 34 Length of fluke 36 - Arms Length of one arm 83 Ring Amplitude of arms 174 Diameter of ring 33 Height of bills 47 Diameter of eye of ring - Distance between bills 146 Thickness of ring - Shackle Stock Diameter of shackle - Length of stock - Diameter of eye of shackle - Max. diameter (if round/oval) - Thickness of shackle pin - Min. diameter (if round/oval) - Opening of shackle - Max. thickness (if square/rect) - Key Min. thickness (if square/rect) - Height of key - Max. width (if square/rect) - Distance of key - Min. width (if square/rect) - Comments The anchor is almost completely intact (the wooden stock is missing) and overgrown with come coral. The angle of the arms combined with the bill indicate that this is a Dutch anchor. 277 278 279 Context Features Reference # 1006 Shape of flukes - Category Isolated site Stock type - Site Double wreck, close to mooring line Stock section - Location Marine Park, St. Eustatius Stock shape - Stock fasteners - GPS Coördinates 17°28’47.52” N 62°59’38.46” W Ship name - Stock key - Ship type - Shank form - Ship size - Crown - Function - Arms - Anchor type - Weight - Date and Origin Features Date - Stock Period - Squaring of shank - Nationality - Ring - Certainty - Shackle - Number of arms 2 Inscriptions - Shank Length of shank - Diameter of top of shank - - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Diameter of bottom of shank - Fluke Diameter of stock eye Width of fluke - Length of fluke - - Arms Length of one arm - Ring Amplitude of arms - Diameter of ring - Height of bills - Diameter of eye of ring - Distance between bills - Thickness of ring - Shackle Stock Diameter of shackle - Length of stock - Diameter of eye of shackle - Max. diameter (if round/oval) - Thickness of shackle pin - Min. diameter (if round/oval) - Opening of shackle - Max. thickness (if square/rect) - Key Min. thickness (if square/rect) - Height of key - Max. width (if square/rect) - Distance of key - Min. width (if square/rect) - Comments This anchor is overgrown with coral, partly buried, and missing one fluke. The other fluke is starting to part from the arm. No reliable measurements of this anchor could be taken and the age or nationality could not be determined. This anchor was caught under the reef and could not be weighed, so the cable was cut causing it to end up on its current location. 280 281 Context Features Reference # 1007 Shape of flukes Tipped spade Category Underwater Stock type - Site In front of Dive Statia, at yellow buoy Stock section - Location Oranje Bay, St. Eustatius Stock shape - Stock fasteners - GPS Coördinates 17°28’56.93” N 62°59’18.80” W Ship name - Stock key Parallel Ship type - Shank form Round/oval Ship size - Crown Rounded Function Kedge anchor Arms Arc Anchor type Pering’s improved anchor Weight - Date and Origin Features Date - Stock Period 1835-1841 Squaring of shank V Nationality English Ring - Certainty Probable Shackle V Number of arms 2 Inscriptions - Shank Length of shank 195 (to key) Diameter of top of shank - - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Diameter of bottom of shank - Fluke Diameter of stock eye Width of fluke 42 Length of fluke 48 - Arms Length of one arm 95 Ring Amplitude of arms 200 Diameter of ring - Height of bills - Diameter of eye of ring - Distance between bills - Thickness of ring - Shackle Stock Diameter of shackle - Length of stock - Diameter of eye of shackle - Max. diameter (if round/oval) - Thickness of shackle pin - Min. diameter (if round/oval) - Opening of shackle - Max. thickness (if square/rect) - Key Min. thickness (if square/rect) - Height of key 3 Max. width (if square/rect) - Distance of key - Min. width (if square/rect) - Comments The rounding of the arms and especially the size of the flukes suggest that this is an improved Pering anchor. The stock is missing, and the chain and shackle are completely entangled. Due to the many sea urchins around the anchor a number of measurements couldn’t be taken. This anchor is not in its original position: it was put here by the owner of Dive Statia. 282 283 Context Features Reference # 1008 Shape of flukes Tipped spade Category Isolated site Stock type Wood over Site Nursing station, next to mooring line Stock section - Location Marine Park, St. Eustatius Stock shape - Stock fasteners - GPS Coördinates 17°28’5.28” N 62°59’29.7” W Ship name - Stock key Unknown Ship type - Shank form - Ship size - Crown Pointed Function Kedge anchor Arms Straight Anchor type Old Admiralty Longshank anchor Weight - Date and Origin Features Date - Period Late 18 -early 19 century Stock Squaring of shank - Nationality English Ring V Certainty Probable Shackle - Number of arms 2 Inscriptions - th th Shank Length of shank 200 Diameter of top of shank - - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Diameter of bottom of shank - Fluke Diameter of stock eye Width of fluke - Length of fluke - - Arms Length of one arm - Ring Amplitude of arms - Diameter of ring - Height of bills - Diameter of eye of ring - Distance between bills - Thickness of ring - Shackle Stock Diameter of shackle - Length of stock - Diameter of eye of shackle - Max. diameter (if round/oval) - Thickness of shackle pin - Min. diameter (if round/oval) - Opening of shackle - Max. thickness (if square/rect) - Key Min. thickness (if square/rect) - Height of key - Max. width (if square/rect) - Distance of key - Min. width (if square/rect) - Comments The anchor was too overgrown with coral to take any reliable measurements. The length of the shank was measured to determine the function of the anchor. It appears to have straight arms and large bills, indicating th th that this is a late 18 or early 19 century English anchor. 284 285 Context Features Reference # 1009 Shape of flukes Tipped spade Category Isolated site Stock type Wood over Site Nursing station Stock section - Location Marine Park, St. Eustatius Stock shape - Stock fasteners - GPS Coördinates 17°28’5.28” N 62°59’29.7” W Ship name - Stock key Unknown Ship type - Shank form - Ship size - Crown Pointed Function Kedge anchor Arms Straight Anchor type - Weight - Date and Origin Features Date - Period Late 18 -early 19 century Stock Squaring of shank - Nationality English Ring V Certainty Confirmed Shackle - Number of arms 2 Inscriptions - th th Shank Length of shank 214 Diameter of top of shank - - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Diameter of bottom of shank - Fluke Diameter of stock eye Width of fluke - Length of fluke - - Arms Length of one arm - Ring Amplitude of arms - Diameter of ring - Height of bills - Diameter of eye of ring - Distance between bills - Thickness of ring - Shackle Stock Diameter of shackle - Length of stock - Diameter of eye of shackle - Max. diameter (if round/oval) - Thickness of shackle pin - Min. diameter (if round/oval) - Opening of shackle - Max. thickness (if square/rect) - Key Min. thickness (if square/rect) - Height of key - Max. width (if square/rect) - Distance of key - Min. width (if square/rect) - Comments The anchor was too overgrown with coral to take any reliable measurements. The length of the shank was measured to determine the function of the anchor. It appears to have straight arms and large bills, indicating th th that this is a late-18 - or early-19 -century English anchor. 286 287 Context Features Reference # 1010 Shape of flukes Tipped spade Category Isolated site Stock type Metal straight Site Nursing station Stock section - Location Marine Park, St. Eustatius Stock shape - Stock fasteners - GPS Coördinates 17°28’5.28” N 62°59’29.7” W Ship name - Stock key None Ship type - Shank form - Ship size - Crown Tipped Function Kedge anchor Arms Straight Anchor type Old Admiralty Longshank anchor Weight - Date and Origin Features Date - Period Late 18 -early 19 century Stock Squaring of shank - Nationality English Ring V Certainty Confirmed Shackle - Number of arms 2 Inscriptions - th th Shank Length of shank 184 Diameter of top of shank - V All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Diameter of bottom of shank - Fluke Diameter of stock eye Width of fluke - Length of fluke - - Arms Length of one arm - Ring Amplitude of arms - Diameter of ring - Height of bills - Diameter of eye of ring - Distance between bills - Thickness of ring - Shackle Stock Diameter of shackle - Length of stock - Diameter of eye of shackle - Max. diameter (if round/oval) - Thickness of shackle pin - Min. diameter (if round/oval) - Opening of shackle - Max. thickness (if square/rect) - Key Min. thickness (if square/rect) - Height of key - Max. width (if square/rect) - Distance of key - Min. width (if square/rect) - Comments The anchor was too overgrown with coral to take any reliable measurements. The length of the shank was measured to determine the function of the anchor. It has straight arms and large bills, indicating that this is a th th late-18 - or early-19 -century English anchor. 288 289 Context Features Reference # 1011 Shape of flukes Tipped spade Category Isolated site Stock type Wood over Site Crook’s Castle, next to mooring line Stock section - Location Marine Park, St. Eustatius Stock shape - Stock fasteners - GPS Coördinates 17°28’18.9” N 62°59’15.24” W Ship name - Stock key Parallel Ship type - Shank form - Ship size - Crown Pointed Function Kedge anchor Arms Angled sections Anchor type Dutch with Engelsche bladen Weight 262 kg Date and Origin Features Date - Period Late 18 -early 19 century Stock Squaring of shank - Nationality Dutch Ring V Certainty Probable Shackle - Number of arms 2 Inscriptions - th th Shank Length of shank 195 Diameter of top of shank - - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Diameter of bottom of shank - Fluke Diameter of stock eye Width of fluke 25 Length of fluke 35 - Arms Length of one arm 90 Ring Amplitude of arms - Diameter of ring 20 Height of bills - Diameter of eye of ring - Distance between bills - Thickness of ring 8 Shackle Stock Diameter of shackle - Length of stock - Diameter of eye of shackle - Max. diameter (if round/oval) - Thickness of shackle pin - Min. diameter (if round/oval) - Opening of shackle - Max. thickness (if square/rect) - Key Min. thickness (if square/rect) - Height of key 3 Max. width (if square/rect) - Distance of key 10 Min. width (if square/rect) - Comments This anchor is not as overgrown as the ones at Nursing station, so a few more measurements could be taken. The shank of this anchor is bent close to the crown, which makes it hard to identify. This probably happened when they were trying to weigh the anchor as it was caught on the reef; when this didn’t work the cable was cut. It appears that this is a Dutch anchor, since the arms are slightly bent and are set at a relatively large angle. Large bills are situated at the end of the flukes, which means that this anchor has so called Engelsche Bladen (English flukes). Due to a malfunctioning camera no pictures of this anchor could be taken. 290 Context Features Reference # 1012 Shape of flukes Tipped spade Category Isolated site Stock type - Site Crook’s Castle Stock section - Location Marine Park, St. Eustatius Stock shape - Stock fasteners - GPS Coördinates 17°28’18.9” N 62°59’15.24” W Ship name - Stock key - Ship type - Shank form - Ship size - Crown Pointed Function Sheet anchor Arms Angled sections Anchor type Dutch with Engelsche bladen Weight - Date and Origin Features Date - Period Late 18 -early 19 century Stock Squaring of shank - Nationality Dutch Ring - Certainty Probable Shackle - Number of arms 2 Inscriptions - th th Shank Length of shank - Diameter of top of shank - - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Diameter of bottom of shank - Fluke Diameter of stock eye Width of fluke - Length of fluke - - Arms Length of one arm - Ring Amplitude of arms - Diameter of ring - Height of bills - Diameter of eye of ring - Distance between bills - Thickness of ring - Shackle Stock Diameter of shackle - Length of stock - Diameter of eye of shackle - Max. diameter (if round/oval) - Thickness of shackle pin - Min. diameter (if round/oval) - Opening of shackle - Max. thickness (if square/rect) - Key Min. thickness (if square/rect) - Height of key - Max. width (if square/rect) - Distance of key - Min. width (if square/rect) - Comments This anchor is for the most part embedded in the coral reef. Only the arms and a small part of the shank are still visible. The sheer size of the anchor suggests that it has been used as a sheet anchor. It appears that this is a Dutch anchor, since the arms are slightly bent and are set at a relatively large angle. Large bills are situated at the end of the flukes, which means that this anchor has so called Engelsche Bladen (English flukes). Due to a malfunctioning camera no pictures of this anchor could be taken. The coral growth made it impossible to take any reliable measurements. 291 Context Features Reference # 1013 Shape of flukes Spade Category Isolated site Stock type Wood over Site Anchor Point, close to mooring line Stock section - Location Marine Park, St. Eustatius Stock shape - Stock fasteners - GPS Coördinates 17°27’49.5” N 62°59’12” W Ship name - Stock key - Ship type - Shank form - Ship size - Crown Pointed Function - Arms Angled sections Anchor type - Weight 587 kg Date and Origin Features Date - Stock Period 1750-1775 (approx.) Squaring of shank V Nationality French Ring V Certainty Confirmed Shackle - Number of arms 2 Inscriptions - Shank Length of shank 310 Diameter of top of shank - - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Diameter of bottom of shank - Fluke Diameter of stock eye Width of fluke 52 Length of fluke 52 - Arms Length of one arm - Ring Amplitude of arms - Diameter of ring - Height of bills - Diameter of eye of ring - Distance between bills 180 (approx.) Thickness of ring - Shackle Stock Diameter of shackle - Length of stock - Diameter of eye of shackle - Max. diameter (if round/oval) - Thickness of shackle pin - Min. diameter (if round/oval) - Opening of shackle - Max. thickness (if square/rect) - Key Min. thickness (if square/rect) - Height of key - Max. width (if square/rect) - Distance of key - Min. width (if square/rect) - Comments This is clearly a French anchor, closely resembling the drawings from Diderot’s Encyclopédie. The weight of the anchor was determined using a table from Diderot. The anchor is caught on the reef with one arm, which is probably why the cable was cut and how the anchor ended up on its present location. 292 293 Context Features Reference # 1014 Shape of flukes Tipped spade Category Isolated site Stock type Wood over Site Triple wreck Stock section - Location Marine Park, St. Eustatius Stock shape - Stock fasteners - GPS Coördinates 17°28’45” N 62°59’39.6” W Ship name - Stock key Parallel Ship type - Shank form Round/oval Ship size - Crown Pointed Function Kedge anchor Arms Angled sections Anchor type Dutch with Engelsche bladen Weight 266 kg Date and Origin Features Date - Period Late 18 -early 19 century Stock Squaring of shank V Nationality Dutch Ring V Certainty Confirmed Shackle - Number of arms 2 Inscriptions - th th Shank Length of shank 196 Diameter of top of shank 11 - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Diameter of bottom of shank - Fluke Diameter of stock eye Width of fluke - Length of fluke 46 - Arms Length of one arm 84 Ring Amplitude of arms 182 Diameter of ring - Height of bills - Diameter of eye of ring - Distance between bills - Thickness of ring - Shackle Stock Diameter of shackle - Length of stock - Diameter of eye of shackle - Max. diameter (if round/oval) - Thickness of shackle pin - Min. diameter (if round/oval) - Opening of shackle - Max. thickness (if square/rect) - Key Min. thickness (if square/rect) - Height of key - Max. width (if square/rect) - Distance of key 45 Min. width (if square/rect) - Comments The anchor is almost completely intact (the wooden stock is missing) and overgrown with come coral. The angle of the arms combined with the bill indicate that this is a Dutch anchor. This anchor was caught under the reef and could not be weighed, so the cable was cut causing it to end up on its current location. 294 295 Context Features Reference # 1015 Shape of flukes - Category Isolated site Stock type - Site Triple wreck Stock section - Location Marine Park, St. Eustatius Stock shape - Stock fasteners - GPS Coördinates 17°28’45” N 62°59’39.6” W Ship name - Stock key - Ship type - Shank form - Ship size - Crown - Function - Arms - Anchor type - Weight - Date and Origin Features Date - Stock Period - Squaring of shank - Nationality - Ring - Certainty - Shackle - Number of arms ? Inscriptions - Shank Length of shank - Diameter of top of shank - - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Diameter of bottom of shank - Fluke Diameter of stock eye Width of fluke - Length of fluke - - Arms Length of one arm - Ring Amplitude of arms - Diameter of ring - Height of bills - Diameter of eye of ring - Distance between bills - Thickness of ring - Shackle Stock Diameter of shackle - Length of stock - Diameter of eye of shackle - Max. diameter (if round/oval) - Thickness of shackle pin - Min. diameter (if round/oval) - Opening of shackle - Max. thickness (if square/rect) - Key Min. thickness (if square/rect) - Height of key - Max. width (if square/rect) - Distance of key - Min. width (if square/rect) - Comments This anchor is partially buried and is overgrown with coral. Part of the shank is missing and only one arm can be seen. As a result, no measurements could be taken. This anchor was caught under the reef and could not be weighed, so the cable was cut causing it to end up on its current location. 296 297 Context Features Reference # 1016 Shape of flukes Tipped spade Category Isolated site Stock type - Site Triple wreck Stock section - Location Marine Park, St. Eustatius Stock shape - Stock fasteners - GPS Coördinates 17°28’45” N 62°59’39.6” W Ship name - Stock key - Ship type - Shank form - Ship size - Crown - Function - Arms - Anchor type - Weight - Date and Origin Features Date - Stock Period - Squaring of shank - Nationality - Ring - Certainty - Shackle - Number of arms 2 Inscriptions - Shank Length of shank - Diameter of top of shank - - All dimensions are recorded in centimeters. Diameter of bottom of shank - Fluke Diameter of stock eye Width of fluke - Length of fluke - - Arms Length of one arm - Ring Amplitude of arms - Diameter of ring - Height of bills - Diameter of eye of ring - Distance between bills - Thickness of ring - Shackle Stock Diameter of shackle - Length of stock - Diameter of eye of shackle - Max. diameter (if round/oval) - Thickness of shackle pin - Min. diameter (if round/oval) - Opening of shackle - Max. thickness (if square/rect) - Key Min. thickness (if square/rect) - Height of key - Max. width (if square/rect) - Distance of key - Min. width (if square/rect) - Comments This anchor is partially buried, overgrown with coral, and has part of its shank is missing. As a result, no measurements could be taken. The flukes on this anchor are very large. This anchor was caught under the reef and could not be weighed, so the cable was cut causing it to end up on its current location. 298 299 300 Appendix 4: Database Summary 301 302 # Pound- Date age Place of manufacture Weight (kg) Length (cm) Condition 1 3 1786 Sweden (F) 473 188.5 very good 2 3 1786 Sweden (F) 484 188.5 very good 3 3 1786 Scotland (CA) 420 168.9 very good 4 3 1786 Sweden (F) 471 188.8 very good 5 3 1786 Sweden (F) 477 188.5 very good 6 3 1786 Sweden (F) 476 188.3 very good 7 3 1786 Scotland (CA) 420 168.2 very good 8 3 1786 Sweden (F) - 188.8 very good 9 4 1692-1712 Norway (CB) - - good 10 4 1692-1712 Norway (CB) - - good 11 4 1692-1712 Norway (CB) - - good th 12 - 18 century Spain - - bad 13 - - 14 2 15 1 16 1 17 - - - bad th Sweden (F) - 120.3 bad th late 18 century /2 late 18 century England - 72.5 reasonable /2 th early 18 century England - 77 reasonable 12 1692-1712 Norway (CB) 1541 267.8 good 18 4 - France - 174 very bad 19 4 1766-1778, 1783-1785 France - 178 very bad 20 4 1766-1778, 1783-1785 France - 176 very bad 21 4 1766-1778, 1783-1785 France - 176 very bad 22 12 - Sweden or Norway - 257 very bad 23 12 - Sweden or Prussia - - very bad 24 18 - Sweden or Prussia - 240 very bad 25 12 around 1700 Sweden (F) - 259.5 good 26 18 1685 – 1688 England - 245.3 good 27 - - - - 221.5 very bad 28 - - - - - very bad 29 12 1716-1725 England (IF) - 244 good 30 12 1692-1712 Norway (CB) 1645 260 good th 31 24 late 18 century France - 311 good 32 - around 1690 England - 105.5 very bad 33 12 around 1700 34 1 35 1 36 Sweden (F) - 259 reasonable th England - 77.8 reasonable th late 18 century England - 72.8 reasonable 12 1692-1712 Norway (CB) 1561 268 good 37 8 1692-1712 Norway (CB) - - reasonable 38 12 1692-1712 Norway (CB) 1532-1580 267 reasonable /2 /2 late 18 century 303 # Pound- Date age Place of manufacture Weight (kg) Length (cm) Condition 39 6 - Sweden (F or Å) - 222 bad 40 4 around 1772 France (RV) around 600 178.5 good 41 4 around 1772 France (RV) 604 180.4 good 42 4 1772 France (RV) around 600 178.7 good 43 6 1726-1794 England - - good 44 4 around 1772 France (RV) around 600 178.5 good 45 12 1692-1712 Norway (CB) - 257.5 good 46 4 1772 France (RV) around 600 179 good 47 4 around 1772 France (RV) 604 179 good 48 3 1786 Sweden (F) 485 - reasonable th 49 6 mid- to late 17 century England - 224.2 good 50 - around 1700 Prussia or Scandinavia - 219 good 51 6 1676-1700 Sweden (WA) - - good 52 12 1716-1725 England (IF) - 241 good 53 6 1676-1700 Sweden (WA) 835 223.2 good 54 6 1717 Sweden (Å) - 225 good 55 12 1692-1712 Norway (CB) - 270.7 good 56 12 around 1700 Sweden (F) - 259.5 good 57 12 around 1700 Sweden (F) - - good 58 6 1692-1712 Norway (CB) - 221 reasonable 59 1 late 18 century England - 75 bad 60 6 - Probably England - 238 encrusted 61 - - - - 108 encrusted 62 - - Probably England - 100 encrusted 63 - - - - - encrusted 64 - - - - 157 encrusted 65 - - - - 171 encrusted 66 - - - - 135 encrusted 67 - - Possibly Sweden - 167 encrusted 68 - - Probably England - 176 encrusted 69 - - - - 163 encrusted 70 - - - - - encrusted 71 - - - - - encrusted 72 - - - - - encrusted /2 th 304 # Place of Date Function manufacture 1001 England Length of Weight (kg) shank early 18th century th th stream / bower 422 - 1002 Netherlands late 18 – early 19 century kedge 170 173 1003 England > 1841 kedge 112.5 - stream 296 - 1004 England th early 19 century th th 1005 Netherlands late 18 – early 19 century kedge 222 385 1006 - - - - - 1007 England 1835 – 1841 1008 1009 1010 1011 England England England Netherlands kedge - - th th kedge 200 - th th kedge 214 - th th kedge 184 - th th kedge 195 262 th th late 18 – early 19 century late 18 – early 19 century late 18 – early 19 century late 18 – early 19 century 1012 Netherlands late 18 – early 19 century sheet - - 1013 France 1750 – 1775 - 310 587 th th 1014 Netherlands late 18 – early 19 century kedge 196 266 1015 - - - - - 1016 - - - - - 305 306 Appendix 5: Ordnance Inventories 307 308 Name of Fort/Battery No. of guns in the past No. of guns in 2010 Fort Oranje 20 (1665), 25 (early 1781), 8 (+3 in monument) 19 (late 1781), 32 (1801) Fort Panga 6 (1785), 3 (1801) 5 Battery Jussac 3 (1785) 4 Fort Royal 6 (1785) 7 Tumble Down Dick Battery 20 (1749), 22 (1785), 7 (1801) 4 Battery Concordia 3 (1781), 3 (1785), 2 (1801) 2 Battery Corre-Corre 2 (1785), 3 (1801) 3 Battery De Windt 3 (1785), 3 (1801) 3 (+1 burst gun) Battery Nassau 1 (1776), 5 (1785), 3 (1801) 1 Battery Bouillé 9 (1785), 4 (1801) 3 Battery Hollandia 16 (1749) - Fort Chitchie 10 (1780) - Battery Dollijn - - Battery La Haye - - Battery Frederick 3 (1781), 2 (1785), 4 (1801) - Battery Lucie (St. Louis) 2 (1785), 2 (1801), - a number of guns in 1985 Battery on Zeelandia Bay - - Battery on Venus Bay - - Battery on Coculus Bay a number of guns in 1795 - Battery on Jenkins Bay 2 (1781), 2 (1785), 2 (1801) - Battery Rotterdam 4 (1801) - Fort Amsterdam (Waterfort) 16 (1687), 4 (1785) - Battery Vaughan/Bourbon 4 or 5* (1781), 3 (1801) - Battery ‘On the Bay’ - - *This battery was commonly called ‘Four-gun Battery’, because there were always four guns employed here. However, in 1781 there were five guns present, and on page 114 of the Proceedings on the Trial of Lieut. Col. Cockburne (see next page) they speak of a ‘five gun battery’ in the area where Battery Vaughan was located. 309 310 George (Oranje) Gloucester Townsend Vaughan Camberland Rodney Frederick Bernich Lisburne (De Windt) Charlote (Tumble Down Dick) Amburst Cunningham (Concordia) Signal Hill ? ? List of ordnance on St. Eustatius, dating to November 1, 1781. Due to the bad quality of the document, the names of the batteries are partly obscured. Their full names can be found on the right. The English had their own names for the majority of fortifications, but some of these can’t be matched to any fort or battery. Source: Proceedings on the Trial of Lieut. Col. Cockburne for the Loss of the Island of St. Eustatius (1783). 312 Return of Ordnance and Ordnance Stores on the Island of St. Eustatius, 23th April 1801 Fort/Battery No. of guns Poundage Material Condition Fort Orange 2 18 iron unserviceable 7 12 iron unserviceable 9 6 iron unserviceable 4 12 (carronades) iron serviceable 8 3 iron serviceable 2 2 iron unserviceable 1 24 iron serviceable 1 18 iron unserviceable 1 12 iron serviceable 1 8 iron unserviceable Battery Frederick 4 4 iron serviceable Battery Nassau 2 12 iron serviceable 1 4 iron serviceable 1 18 iron serviceable 1 12 iron serviceable 1 8 iron unserviceable 1 24 iron serviceable 1 18 iron serviceable 1 8 iron serviceable 2 12 iron serviceable 2 4 iron serviceable Battery de Bouillé Battery de Vent (De Windt) Bourbon Battery Rotterdam Battery Signal Hill Battery 1 6 iron serviceable 2 4 iron serviceable 3 12 iron serviceable 2 12 (carronades) iron serviceable 2 6 iron serviceable Jenkins Bay 2 3 iron serviceable Concordia Battery 1 6 iron serviceable 1 4 iron serviceable 2 6 iron serviceable 12 iron serviceable 2 4 iron serviceable On the beach below the Town 1 4 iron serviceable To the eastward of the Town 2 12 (carronades) iron serviceable Tumble Down Dick Battery St. Louis Battery Courra (Corre-Corre) Bay Battery 1 The guns in the foregoing Return are laid down according to the Dutch calibre. The guns and guncarriages on the different batteries seem to be in a very bad state, some of the later being almost useless. The most serviceable guns I see in the island are the English 12-pounder carronades, of which there are two mounted at Tumble Down Dick Battery, four in Fort Orange, and two to the Eastward of the Fort. Francis Laye Lt. Colonel, Commander Royal Artillery; West Indies 313 314 Two pages from the Return of Ordnance and Ordnance Stores on the Island of St. Eustatius, 23th April 1801. Not only guns, but also shot and equipment needed to load and fire the guns are listed. National Archives of the United Kingdom, WO1/119. Photograph taken by Charles Trollope. 315

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