Warfare in the Ancient World

No conflict can be totally understood without previously grasp the circumstances of all contenders. In this sense, to know the Dacian soldier’s panoply is essential not just to approach to the facts of the battlefields of Domitian’s and Trajan’s Dacian Wars (85-106 d.C.) and their consequential impact on the development of historical events, but also to apprehend the development of arms and tactics seen in the Roman Army during this period. Our goal is to present an updated reconstruction and analysis of Dacian infantry soldier’s offensive and defensive panoply during Decebalus’ times, of the military specialties derived from it, as well as its tactical and battlefield  impact. To do so, we will start from the last historiographical breakthroughs till the date and, also, from a critic re-reading of available fonts about Dacian infantry’s weaponry in 1st to 2nd Centuries AD, its origins, applications and possible foreign influences.

Analyzed are eight biblical episodes that culminate in an aggressive act of killing, done in an exceptional state of sudden rage, generally termed “qin’ah.” Traditionally but questionably rendered as “jealousy,” it actually means “fury, rage of the warrior.” The heroic warrior background of the relevant biblical episodes and their terminology is documented from ancient sources including the Iliad. – Bernhard Lang, “Der Gotteskrieger. Archaische Kriegerwut und die Geschichte des ‘Eifers’ in Israel,” pp. 117–151 of: Eifer Gottes – Eifern für Gott. Radikalismus und Fanatismu in der biblischen Tradition und ihrer Auslegungsgeschichte. Hg. von Johannes Woyke. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2020.

One of four known ancient Maya books, the Grolier Codex depicts different manifestations of Venus; the column of glyphs on the left of each panel records days in a 104-year Venus almanac. These plaster-coated bark-paper pages, carbon-dated to the 13th century, represent only half of the 20-page original. This article is an excerpt of pages 98-99 from the March 1990 National Geographic Magazine article "America's Ancient Skywatchers" by John B. Carlson with a numbered photographic arrangement of the Grolier Codex depicting the author's discovery that Codex pages 10 and 11 are actually two parts of the same "page 10".  Carlson clarifies the identities of Venus deities depicted in the Grolier Codex from a comparison of images from the Cacaxtla murals and links the images of the Grolier Codex with ancient Maya astronomically timed ritual warfare and sacrifice. (Grolier Codex photographs: Enrico Ferorelli; Mural photograph: Bob Sacha)

This article has been posted on Academia.edu as part of the Grolier Codex Project of the Center for Archaeoastronomy under the directorship of John B. Carlson, Ph.D.  The Grolier Codex Project seeks to further advance the study of the Maya Grolier Codex.

This short article attempts to show that there was not sword particular to the Spartans and that short swords were used by various Greek Armies from the Bronze Age. Origany published in Greek in the Naftiki Hellas (Naval Greece) magazine of the Hellenic Navy.

This article delves into the relevance of the concept of "total war" as it is applied to the Peloponnesian War. In so doing, it is noticed a lack of consensus among contemporary scholar in regards to what is required for a war to be considered as total. Therefore, I here advance three sufficient and necessary conditions to deem a warlike conflict as total war. My conclusion, on the one hand, is that the Peloponnesian War fulfilled only part of those conditions. On the other, I hold that the tendency among Hellenists is to constantly compare the two World Wars that ravaged the 20 th-century. This distorts the analysis and hampers the explanatory capacity of the concept.

The Grolier Codex is discussed in the context of the archaeoastronomy of the ancient Americas on pages 98-99 of the March 1990 National Geographic Magazine article "America's Ancient Skywatchers" by John B. Carlson. One of four known ancient Maya books, the Grolier Codex depicts different manifestations of the planet Venus; the column of glyphs on the left of each panel records days in a 104-year Venus almanac. These plaster-coated bark-paper pages, carbon-dated to the 13th century, represent only half of the 20-page original. A numbered photographic arrangement of the Grolier Codex depictes the author's discovery that Codex pages 10 and 11 are actually two parts of the same "page 10".  Carlson clarifies the identities of Venus deities depicted in the Grolier Codex from a comparison of images from the Cacaxtla murals and links the images of the Grolier Codex with ancient Maya astronomically timed ritual warfare and sacrifice. (Grolier Codex photographs: Enrico Ferorelli; Other photos: Bob Sacha)

This article has been posted on Academia.edu as part of the Grolier Codex Project of the Center for Archaeoastronomy under the directorship of John B. Carlson, Ph.D.  The Grolier Codex Project seeks to further advance the study of the Maya Grolier Codex.

""En Filipo II y el Arte de la Guerra tendremos la oportunidad de conocer en profundidad a uno de los más grandes reyes de la antigua Macedonia. Gracias a su habilidad como estratega, diplomático, político y soldado, heredó un reino pobre, débil y acosado por innumerables enemigos y lo transformó en el más poderoso de toda Grecia.

A lo largo de sus páginas podremos conocer la historia del reino Macedonio, desde sus orígenes míticos hasta la formación de un imperio, de la mano del que, a la postre, se convertiría en el padre del mítico Alejandro Magno y en el forjador de un nuevo ejército que cambiaria el devenir de la guerra en la Antigüedad. Filipo II fue el creador de la falange macedonia, formación que se demostraría como inigualable en el campo de batalla y que reportaría incontables victorias sobre poderosos enemigos, como los ilirios, los tesalios, los tracios, los beocios o los atenienses. Pero no sólo eso, logró integrar en el campo de batalla a la infantería y a la caballería para emplearlos en nuevas formaciones tácticas: armó a sus soldados con las míticas sarissas y apreció como pocos las posibilidades militares que la maquinaria de guerra podía proporcionarle, siendo el mecenas de numerosos avances en este campo. Soñó con conquistar el Imperio persa, cuando ya había logrado lo que nadie antes fue capaz: el control de Grecia.

Sólo la muerte le arrebató esa hazaña, pero sentó las bases de lo que más tarde conseguiría su propio hijo. Su figura levantó tanto odios como pasiones; se le conocía como mujeriego y bebedor, pero también por su habilidad para la oratoria, por sus astucia, determinación y valor. Siempre luchó en primera línea junto a sus soldados y nunca permitió que éstos le llamaran rey, sino solo "General".

This course presents a broad survey of historical forces at work over the past 6,000 years, examining the manners in which human societies have organized themselves along categories of race, ethnicity, class, and gender to meet the challenges of the increasing human population and its demands on natural resources: thus, it examines continuity and change in societies over time, in different places, and among various peoples.

Ancient authors such as Aelian, Asclepiodotus, and Polybius all mention the Macedonian phalanx adopting a formation called the synaspismos in which the files of soldiers are so close together that their shields would overlap. Modern authors such as Walbank, English and Matthew argue that such a formation was impossible to assume in a battle scenario and that the ancient writers were mistaken, in its use in combat. Their argument is based on the fact that the manner of bearing the shield (peltē) and pike (sarissa) does not allow for such a tight formation. Through the use of experimental archaeology, this article however argues that the synaspismos formation was indeed a possibility , and that we are mistaken in the modern view of how the phalangite wielded the sarissa pike.

The status of Alexander the Great as one of the most successful military leaders of antiquity is undeniable. It was his tactical genius, combined with the supreme martial prowess of the Macedonian king that enabled him to defeat Darius III and conquer the vast plains of the Persian Empire. Alexander’s courage and bravery, which he displayed on numerous occasions during the campaign, earned him many great victories and the reputation of being a man who did not hesitate to risk his own life.

Abstract
This article examines the longstanding rivalry of Rome and Parthia, which began as an unintended consequence of Crassus’ decisive defeat at Carrhae in 53 BCE. It synthesizes the accounts and opinions of numerous Graeco-Roman writers from the Augustan Age to late antiquity in order to help illustrate the new and interconnected post-Carrhae world and its legacy. The rivalry of the Romans and Parthians became a primary focus of their foreign policies and drastically expanded their perceptions of the world in which they interacted. Even after the fall of the Parthians to the rebellious Sassanid Persians in the 220s CE, the Romans continued to find their three-century-long rivalry with the Parthians of interest and relevant to the changing world of late antiquity.

This monograph presents the first complete analysis of all campaigns and battles of the Armenian-Persian War of 449-451, one of the largest in a long series of wars fought between these adversaries during the III-Vth centuries. The study reveals the course and chronology of hostilities, the numbers and force structures of the Armenian and Persian armies, their battle orders and tactics. The two general engagements at Khalkhal and Avarayr (in 450 and 451, respectively) are dissected in detail, including their exact locations, the sizes of the battling armies and the numbers and deployment of their combat arms (cavalry, infantry, and еlephantry), as well as the chosen strategy and the original tactical designs of their high command. Special attention is given to the interaction of Persian and Armenian traditional military doctrines with practical demands of warfare. The meanings of many pieces and phrases of ancient Armenian military vocabulary and terminology are being deciphered and explained for the first time. Accordingly, extensive excerpts from the ancient Armenian sources receive new interpretation. To achieve his objectives, the author employs interdisciplinary methodology, effectively integrating source criticism, military-historical, military-theoretical, military-terminological, etymological, historical-philological, historical-demographic, historical-cartographic, topographical and chronological levels of analysis. The book is intended both for specialists and general readers interested in the warfare of the ancient world.

Монография представляет собой первый в историографии целостный анализ кампаний и сражений армяно-персидской войны 449–451 гг. – одной из самых больших в длинной серии aрмяно-персидских войн III–V веков. В книге устанавливается периодизация войны 449–451 гг. по ее основным этапам; методично уточняются динамика и хронология военных действий; выявляются численность и организационные структуры армянской и пер-сидской армий; рассматривается взаимодействие военных доктрин этих тра-диционных противников с практическими требованиями ведения войны и боя; детально разбираются генеральные сражения под Халхалом (450 г.) и Аварайром (451 г.), в том числе боевые порядки и тактические заготовки сто-рон, задачи родов войск, их количественное распределение по фронту и в глубину, наконец, ход самих этих битв. Трактуется и раскрывается значение многих единиц древнеармянской военной лексики и терминологии. Все эти и другие вопросы исследуются на основе междисциплинарной методологии и интегрирования различных уровней анализа – источниковедческого, военно-исторического, военно-теоретического, военно-терминологического, этимологического, историко-филологического, историко-демографического, историко-картографического, топографического и хронологического. Для специалистов и широкого круга читателей, интересующихся историей и военным делом античного мира.

The ancient world had its fair share of brave and courageous men, who stayed the course despite profound adversity or who seemed to laugh in the face of death. However, our sources also include accounts of people who – out of fear, for personal gain, or some combination of these and other factors – decided to betray their friends, their country, or their principles.

The Dendra panoply was originally discovered by Professor Paul Åström and Dr Nicolaos Verdelis, in tomb 12 in Argolis/Greece, near Midea citadel and is dated on LHIIB period. Since it is considered the first complete set of body armor that has ever been found in the archaeological records, it emerges a series of questions of how a warrior could perform under this panoply. The remit of this thesis is to investigate possible answers on the function and the nature of the Dendra panoply in terms of experimentation. The author uses the work of Åström and Verdelis as his primary source, but supplements it with other significant academic works on this subject. The research expands on the relevant archaeological findings and the Linear B ideograms concerning this type of armor. To better understand the function and effectiveness of the armour a series of experiments were conducted in which a replica of this armor was reconstructed and tested in the context of mobility, stability and in conjuction with the use of several weapons. This thesis mainly argues that this was intended for use by infantry who would use a spear as his main weapon, while his operational task could not have been conducted without the cooperation of light troops. It is highlighted that the Dendra panoply warrior needs a lot of open space and cannot operate efficiently in close-combat conditions. The ability of a Dendra panoply warrior to stand on a chariot, while on charge, remains doubtful.

Generations of historians have often treated the large-scale recruitment of barbarians in the late Roman army as one of the root causes of the decline of the western Roman Empire. But evidence from both the literary and material sources for views on this so-called 'barbarization' of the field armies during the fourth century AD has been exaggerated and misinterpreted. On the contrary, the growing presence of barbarians in the Roman war machine did not diminish the Empire's status as Mediterranean super power.

"The ‘concept’ of peace in Mesopotamia":
The study of the ancient world has contributed to the development of peace studies, attempting to reconstruct a history of ideas of peace. Within these investigations into the past, however, the peoples of the ancient Near East have often been thought of as purely warlike and lacking a ‘concept’ of peace. For these reasons, this paper investigates why it is so difficult for modern scholars to recognize the presence of an idea of peace in Mesopotamia. In doing so, this research focuses on reconstructing the mode of narration and conceptualization of peace within Sumerian and Akkadian literary texts.

When the Parthians rebelled against the Seleucid Empire in the middle third century BCE, seizing a large section of northeastern Iran, they inherited the challenging responsibility of monitoring the extensive frontier between the Iranian plateau and the Central Asian steppe. Although initially able to maintain working relations with various tribal confederations in the region, with the final collapse of the Bactrian kingdom in the 1305 BCE, the ever-widening eastern frontier of the Parthian state became increasingly unstable, and in the 1205 BCE nomadic warriors devastated the vulnerable eastern territories of the Parthian state, temporarily eliminating Parthian control of the Iranian plateau. This article is a consideration of the failures of the Parthians to meet and overcome the obstacles they faced along their eastern frontier in the 120s BCE and a reevaluation of the causes and consequences of the events. It concludes that western distractions and the mismanagement of eastern affairs by the Arsacids turned a minor dispute into one of the most costly and difficult struggles in Parthian history.

In this article, see pages 164, 166-168 for Stuart's discussion of the Grolier Codex.  It is highly significant that the Mexican State of Chiapas and the Universidad Autonoma de Chiapas chose to include the Grolier Codex as an authentic ancient Maya book in 1985 and make a fine color facsimile available along with the Dresden, Paris, and Madrid codices for further research. 

This review and essay of "Los Codices Mayas" is being posted as a personal tribute to my friend and colleague, the late George E. Stuart, Ph.D. (1935 - 2014) for his great generosity and many extraordinary contributions promoting world archaeology over several generations.

This article has been posted on Academia.edu as part of the Grolier Codex Project of the Center for Archaeoastronomy under the directorship of John B. Carlson, Ph.D.  The Grolier Codex Project seeks to further advance the study of the Maya Grolier Codex.

The present article explores the often ambivalent relationship our ancient sources had with the role of women in times of war, from the Homeric to the early Byzantine period. The article takes the view that these roles were not something invariably imposed by men, but were part of a more general societal development, in which women as much as men supported the status quo, and for a variety of reasons. 1

Course Description:
This course offers an introduction to the history of ancient Greece from the Bronze Age to Alexander the Great, drawing on both source materials and modern works. This is a student-driven seminar based on readings and in-class discussions on the societal, religious, and political developments of the Greek world in antiquity. Students will become familiar with the Bronze, Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic ages of Greek history. The foundation of this course is the geopolitical history of the expanding Greek world; however, students also will engage the importance of ancient Greek culture, literature, religion, art, and gender roles. Through the investigation of texts, architecture, and archaeology, students will gain an appreciation of not just the ruling classes of the ancient Greek world, but also of the daily lives of normal Greeks and Hellenized native peoples.

The Viceroy of Kush (King's son of Kush) was a high official in the structure of the Egyptian imperial administration during the New Kingdom. The textual and archaeological evidence of the Ramesside Period indicate that some Ramesside viceroys had played a significant military role during the reigns of Sety I, Ramesses II and Merenptah, to support the political, economic and military authority of the Ramesside Empire in its southern territories. They had participated in the major Ramesside military campaigns against Nubia under the command of their warrior kings that aimed to crush any Nubian revolts in the regions of Irem or Wawat. They had also led other campaigns by themselves for the same purpose and for any other political or economic purposes. This paper surveys and discusses this point, in order to shed some light on a new aspect of the Egyptian imperialism in Ramesside Nubia.

Chapter III (55)

How Roman Arms Came to Conquer the Successors of Alexander (55)

How Much More Successful Was the Roman Legion than the Macedonian Phalanx? (57)

The Best Soldiers versus the Best Formation (59)

Why the Greeks Were Shocked after Rome’s Domination of Macedon (60)

Final Thoughts on the Impact of Alexander on Polybius’ Work (63)

Conflict in Greece and Rome: The Definitive Political, Social, and Military Encyclopedia, ed. Sara Phang, Douglas Kelly, Peter Londey, and Iain Spence, ABC-CLIO. 2016.

(Note: Severus' arch celebrates his victories over the Parthians; however, the editors preferred to reference the Arsacid Parthians as the Arsacid Persians.)

Ever since Edward Gibbon’s History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, barbarian migrations have loomed large in popular perceptions and scholarly discus-sions concerning ‘the Fall of Rome’. In particular, the arrival of Gothic tribes into Roman territory, crossing the Danube in 376, has usually been interpreted as the starting point of the ‘Great Migration Era’, eventually culminating in the end of western Roman emperorship a century later. However, the exact nature, organization, and aims of the Visigoths have been fiercely contested in the renewed surge of literature over the past decade debating the end of the Roman Empire. This piece will look at the different phases of the ‘genesis’ of the Visigoths and their itinerary, from their origins in the Balkans, to their uprising under Alaric, their move to Italy, and their eventual settlement in southwestern Gaul and Spain. We will see that these various episodes cannot be seen as the long trek of an ever-wandering mass of barbarian hordes, but rather the movements of an army constantly changing in composition due to political circumstances. The Visigoths only came into being as a force because of Roman power games, and were only able to forge a kingdom when the Empire became a failed state in its transalpine provinces long after their settlement.

One of the world's oldest treaties provides the backdrop for a new analysis of the Egyptian concept of hetep ("peace"). To understand the full range of meaning of hetep, Peace in Ancient Egypt explores battles against Egypt's enemies, royal offerings to deities, and rituals of communing with the dead. Vanessa Davies argues that hetep is the result of action that is just, true, and in accord with right order (maat). Central to the concept of hetep are the issues of rhetoric and community. Beyond detailing the ancient Egyptian concept of hetep, it is hoped that this book will provide a useful framework that can be considered in relation to concepts of peace in other cultures.

Ten new essays from a distinguished international cast treat Spartas most famous area of activity. The results are challenging. Among the contributors, Thomas Figueira explores the paradox that Spartas cavalry was an undistinguished institution. Jean Ducat conducts the most thorough study to date of Spartas official cowards, the tremblers. Anton Powell asks why Sparta chose not to destroy Athens after the Peloponnesian War. And Stephen Hodkinson argues that the image of Spartan society as militaristic may after all be a mirage. This is the sixth volume from the International Sparta Seminar, founded by Powell and Hodkinson in 1988. The series has established itself as the main forum for the study of Spartan history. 332p, b/w illus, maps (Classical Press of Wales 2006)

ISBN-13: 978-1-905125-11-1
ISBN-10: 1-905125-11-9

Despite the vast research undertaken on hoplite warfare, surprisingly little is known about how hoplite shields were made, the very technology underpinning the transformative military reforms of hoplite warfare. The few forays that have explored the manufacturing process have been isolated and unintegrated studies leading to an often simplistic and superficial uniformity of production model which does not reflect the evidence. This article analyses the physical remains of extant hoplite shields and finds a plurality of different designs in concurrent use with core compositional differences that likely impacted combat performance and economic value with some designs performing better than others. Moreover, the use and availability of different shield designs of variable quality and economic value suggests a wider range of socioeconomic diversity in hoplite armies and among hoplites than is generally assumed.

Александр Константинович Нефёдкин Изучение древнего военного искусства в России и странах СНГ (XVIII-начало XXI в.). Библиография. В работе рассматривается изучение военной истории и военного дела древнего мира в целом в XVIII-начале XXI в. в Российской империи, СССР, РФ и постсоветских странах. Разбираются основные темы и направления изучения, рассматривается научная деятельность основных исследователей. В качестве приложения приводится список научной и научно-популярной литература по теме, составляющий более 5800 наименований. Данная книга является первой монографией по теме.
Содержание:
Часть I. Историография.
Предисловие
I. Изучение древнего военного искусства в России в XVIII  начале XХ в.
1. Изучение военного искусства древности военными-профессоналами в XIX  начале XX в.
2. Изучение военной истории гражданскими историками XIX  начале ХХ в.
II. Изучение военного искусства древности в СССР в довоенное время
1. Курсы для военных училищ
2. Археологические и исторические работы
III. Изучение древнего военного дела и истории в СССР в конце 1940-х  1950-е гг.
IV. Позднесоветская наука о военном деле (1960-е  1980-е гг.)
1. Изучение племенного мира и древнего Востока
2. Военное китаеведение
3. Изучение Северного Причерноморья
4. Изучение античного мира
5. Исследование древней Сибирь
6. Общие курсы военной истории, оружиеведение
7. Исследования в Закавказье
8. Национальные исследования Средней Азии
9. Исследования в Прибалтике
V. Исследования в 1990-е – начале 2000-х гг.
1. Изучение античного мира
2. Исследования Северного Причерноморья
3. Изучение археологических культур Сибири
VI. Исследования в России в 2000-е  2010-е гг.
1. Изучение древней Греции
2. Исследование древнего Рима
3. Противники античного мира
4. Изучение варварских народов Северного Причерноморья
5. Изучение греческих государств Северного Причерноморья
6. Изучение Северного Кавказа, Поволжья и Сибири
VII. Изучение военного дела древности в постсоветских странах
1. Исследования в Белоруссии, на Украине и в Молдове
2. Исследования в Закавказье
3. Исследования в Средней Азии и в Казахстане
4. Изучение оружия в Прибалтике
VIII. Изучение древней военной теории
1. Античная военная теория
2. Китайская военная мысль
Заключение
Часть II. Библиография

Chapter 2 of my 1980 thesis was a study of Alexander's tactics in the first of his three major battles against the Persians, at the Granicus River.
When I originally wrote this, as noted in this new draft, the prevailing academic opinion was that the battle was fought across the modern river course.  While I had reservations about that, I generally had to follow that line.  As you will see, modern studies now confirm that the river has changed course since the time of Alexander.  I have acknowledged that in this revision, but not made many changes, as it does not really affect the core of my arguments.
I have also added an extended conclusion to reinforce my key points.  All additions are in italics.

After the death of Alexander III of Macedon, the Seleucid Empire emerged as one of the most powerful Hellenistic kingdoms of Asia. His huge territorial extension and the various peoples who came under their control necessitated the creation of a mighty army that would ensure their control and help protectit from its enemies.

The fourth known pre-Columbian Maya codex—the only one discovered in the 20th century—was found by looters in the mid-1960s. First exhibited in New York in 1971, what has come to be known as the Grolier Codex is half of a hybrid-style 20-page, 104-year Mesoamerican divinatory Venus Almanac. With new radiocarbon dates that place it in the 13th century CE, it is likely to be the oldest surviving book on paper from the Americas as well as the only ancient Maya codex now residing in Mexico. Although most Mayanists have accepted it as authentic, based in part on the author’s 40 years of research,* it remains an unacknowledged Mexican national treasure as it has never been officially recognized except in the State of Chiapas. Mesoamerican Venus Almanacs were widely used in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica to regulate practices of sacred warfare and ritual sacrifice, the goal of which was to obtain captives whose blood was shed to invoke the personified forces of rain and fertility. The Grolier Codex offers unique images of 10 of the 20 manifestations of Venus (named in the Maya Dresden Codex), greatly enriching our knowledge of these traditions documented in four other pre-Columbian codices as well as numerous archaeological and ethnohistoric sources. This article is a summary of the talk given on November 7, 2014 to the Pre-Columbian Society of Washington DC and includes a brief history of accounts of the discovery of the Grolier Codex and allegedly associated artifacts; photographic history; outlines the author’s comprehensive program of research, including several new scientific discoveries leading to an interpretation of the Codex—based on the Dresden Codex and other sources; and offers a new Latinized name that recognizes that the “Codex Mayano-Mexicanus” is an authentic ancient book deriving from the Maya culture and now properly residing in Mexico.

          *See <http://umd.academia.edu/JohnBCarlson>.

Also utilized as part of the November 7, 2014 talk are TWO 1983 historical STUDY GUIDE documents which can be viewed at the following academia.edu links:

• GROLIER CODEX Page Study Guide: Pages 1-9 and Reconstructed Page 10/11 (1983): 

https://www.academia.edu/7911420/GROLIER_CODEX_Page_Study_Guide_Pages_1-9_and_Reconstructed_Page_10_11

• GROLIER CODEX Comparative Study Guide (1983): Grolier pages 1-9 and reconstructed page 10/11 with Maya Dresden Codex Venus Almanac page numbers 48/1 – 50/2 with Venus Station and Directional Associations; Names (on Dresden Rows 17 & 22) of the associated Venus Impersonators; and Initial (1983) interpretations of the Grolier Codex scenes & iconographic interpretations. Over the three decades since 1983, some of the glyphic and iconographic interpretations have changed, as discussed in the presentation. The details are in press:

https://www.academia.edu/9208071/GROLIER_CODEX_Comparative_Study_Guide_1983_

*****

This article has been posted on Academia.edu as part of the Grolier Codex Project of the Center for Archaeoastronomy under the directorship of John B. Carlson, Ph.D.  The Grolier Codex Project seeks to further advance the study of the Maya Grolier Codex.

A fresh and original translation from Sanskrit of the dashrajnya hymn (hymn 7.18 of Rig Veda) describing this defining battle between Aryan king Sudas and his Aryan as well as non-Aryan foes. The decisive battle led to the uprooting of many tribes from the Sapta Sindhu area.

Many existing beliefs are shown to be merely due to misunderstandings. Further, it is shown that the existing translations fall well short of the true meaning.
For example, no Matsya tribe was involved in this battle.